Louisiana Purchase

 

"Let the Land rejoice, for you have bought Louisiana for a Song."

Gen. Horatio Gates to President Thomas Jefferson, July 18, 1803

“Robert Livingston and James Monroe closed on the sweetest real estate deal of the millennium when they signed the Louisiana Purchase Treaty in Paris on April 30, 1803. They were authorized to pay France up to $10 million for the port of New Orleans and the Floridas. When offered the entire territory of Louisiana–an area larger than Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Spain and Portugal combined–the American negotiators swiftly agreed to a price of $15 million.

Although President Thomas Jefferson was a strict interpreter of the Constitution who wondered if the U.S. Government was authorized to acquire new territory, he was also a visionary who dreamed of an "empire for liberty" that would stretch across the entire continent. As Napoleon threatened to take back the offer, Jefferson squelched whatever doubts he had, submitted the treaty to Congress, and prepared to occupy a land of unimaginable riches.

The Louisiana Purchase added 828,000 square miles of land west of the Mississippi River to the United States. For roughly 4 cents an acre, the United States had purchased a territory whose natural resources amounted to a richness beyond anyone's wildest calculations” (Miller, 1931, para. 1 - 3).

The Louisiana Purchase can go down in history as one of the largest land thefts in the history of this country. France claimed a large chunk of land that ran from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico. Land in which many indigenous people resided. The land exchanged hands between Spain and France and ended up in France’s possession much to the surprise of President Jefferson. At the same time, tension rose between France and Britain. The Island of Saint Dominique lost appeal for Napolean Bonapart after slave rebellions and British interference. After negotiations, France sold a young United States the Louisiana territory. End results of the sale was the migration of many white settlers, battles between Native Americans and pioneers, the ravages of disease and a huge loss of land and its valuable resources for the indigenous people. The Louisiana Purchase was the largest land takeover in the history of this country without the act of war playing a part.

            In April of 1682, Robert Cavelier, Sieur (Lord) de La Salle, a French Explorer, made claim to land near the mouth of the Mississippi River when he read a declaration before a group of confused Indian people. He pronounced his claim, for his country, the entire Mississippi basin. Cavelier named the area for the Prince Louis the Great. Hence the name Louisiana which was in honor of Louis XIV.

            The French explorer Jean-Baptise le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville later founded a settlement near the site of La Salle’s claim named it Nouvelle Orleans for Philippe, Duke of Orleans and Regent of France. By the time of the Louisiana Purchase, the population of whites, slaves of African American descent and Native Americans numbered approximately 8,000 (Harris, 2003).

           

            Ownership of Louisiana went back and forth between France and Spain. Spain took over and had control of the territory of Louisiana in October 1800 when Napolean made a secret deal to take back New Orleans and Louisiana from Spain. He wished to amass and send an army to protect his land holdings. Jefferson did not learn until 1801 that Napolean had reclaimed Louisiana. Faced with trepidation about how powerful France became, he did not want France to have control of the United State’s trade routes. Jefferson made plans about how he was going to buy Louisiana from France. He equated France’s ownership of Louisiana as big of threat as the Revolutionary War (Cerami, 2003).

            Napolean pondered his hold of the island of Saint Domingue which could provide France and other countries with a vast amount of sugar, cotton, cocoa and coffee. France could use the port of New Orleans to ship the crops to Europe. The residents of Saint Domingue believed the French were going to reinstate slavery like what happened on Guadeloupe. Slavery was reinstated. The slave population suffered from food shortages and brutally forced hard labor. The slaves revolted which forced Napolean to sends more troops. More than half of the French army died from diseases, mostly Yellow Fever. Napolean’s interest in the island diminished severely (Cerami, 2003).

Napolean feared a war with Britain may ensue and he did not have the funds to pay for such a war. He thought Britain may attack Louisiana from Canada and he would rather fight Britain from France and not Canada.

            The treaty which permitted the U.S. to use Spanish territory on the Mississippi had expired. American shipments could not be stored in New Orleans warehouses. Merchandise and produce had to be left on open wharfs while awaiting shipment to the other locations which risked exposure to weather and theft. The U.S. economy was in jeopardy.

            Senator James Ross of Pennsylvania drafted a resolution which requested Jefferson to form a 50,000 man army to take over the city of New Orleans. France and the U.S. definitely had a stake in the outcome of the ownership of Louisiana.

            French Minister, Francois de Barbe-Marbois, Robert Livingston, a New Yorker and the American Minster of France and James Monroe, former member of Congress and former governor of Virginia met in Paris on April 12^th to discuss the sale of Louisiana. Much to their surprise Napolean, was more than ready to sell and confirmed and stated his asking price of $22,500,000. Livingston told him the price needed to be lowered considerably.

            Barbe-Marbois stalled pretending that Napolean lost interest in the sale. By April 27^th he told the Americans that Napolean firmly agreed to a selling price of $15,000,000. The treaty was signed by the three men on May 2 but was backdated to April 30. Livingston did not have permission to carry out the land deal but they needed to act fast. Nearly doubling the size of America could help make it a world power in the future.

Jefferson approved the purchase and requested the Senate to ratify the Louisiana Purchase Treaty in which they voted 24 to 7 on October 20, 1803. Congress approved the treaty. Money needed to be borrowed in the form of bonds from European countries which had to be paid back in 15 years. Business took time to be carried out because transatlantic mail took weeks and sometimes months. Finally, Louisiana belonged to the United States (Harris, 2003).

Fifteen states joined the union as the result of the Louisiana Purchase: Louisiana; Missouri; Arkansas; Texas; Iowa; Minnesota; Kansas; Nebraska; Colorado; North Dakota; South Dakota; Montana; Wyoming; Oklahoma; and New Mexico. Some of the aforementioned states were entirely within the boundaries of the Louisiana Purchase and others were also a part of the deal struck with Mexico after the Mexican/American War (Raum, 2014). States developed statehood as a result of the 1787 Northwest Ordinance in which land was considered a territory that had a population of at least five thousand and full-fledged statehood would occur when the population reached 60,000. Self-governance applied for territories and states according to the ordinance (Cerami, 2003).

The Louisiana Purchased with an accumulated land mass of approximately 830,000 square miles led to a great westward migration. White settlers believed they had a right to move  to the uncharted territories. The Indian population did not fare well after the purchase. Much of the game, land and other valuable resources were taken over by the white settlers. They faced starvation and died from diseases such as small pox. Many were killed in battles with white settlers or American armies. Land purchased from a country by a country who were not the original inhabitants.

 

 

TREATY BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND THE FRENCH REPUBLIC

The President of the United States of America and the First Consul of the French Republic in the name of the French People desiring to remove all Source of misunderstanding relative to objects of discussion mentioned in the Second and _{fifth articles of the Convention of the 8th Vendmiaire on 9/30 September 1800} relative to the rights claimed by the United States in virtue of the Treaty concluded at Madrid the 27 of October 1795, between His Catholic Majesty & the Said United States, & willing to Strengthen the union and friendship which at the time of the Said Convention was happily reestablished between the two nations have respectively named their Plenipotentiaries to wit The President of the United States, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate of the Said States; Robert R. Livingston Minister Plenipotentiary of the United States and James Monroe Minister Plenipotentiary and Envoy extraordinary of the Said States near the Government of the French Republic; And the First Consul in the name of the French people, Citizen Francis Barbé Marbois Minister of the public treasury who after having respectively exchanged their full powers have agreed to the following Articles.

Article I

Whereas by the Article the third of the Treaty concluded at St Ildefonso the 9th Vendamiaire on 1st October 1800 between the First Consul of the French Republic and his Catholic Majesty it was agreed as follows.

"His Catholic Majesty promises and engages on his part to cede to the French Republic six months after the full and entire execution of the conditions and Stipulations herein relative to his Royal Highness the Duke of Parma, the Colony or Province of Louisiana with the Same extent that it now has in the hand of Spain, & that it had when France possessed it; and Such as it Should be after the Treaties subsequently entered into between Spain and other States."

And whereas in pursuance of the Treaty and particularly of the third article the French Republic has an incontestible title to the domain and to the possession of the said Territory--The First Consul of the French Republic desiring to give to the United States a strong proof of his friendship doth hereby cede to the United States in the name of the French Republic forever and in full Sovereignty the said territory with all its rights and appurtenances as fully and in the Same manner as they have been acquired by the French Republic in virtue of the above mentioned Treaty concluded with his Catholic Majesty.

Article II

In the cession made by the preceeding article are included the adjacent Islands belonging to Louisiana all public lots and Squares, vacant lands and all public buildings, fortifications, barracks and other edifices which are not private property.--The Archives, papers & documents relative to the domain and Sovereignty of Louisiana and its dependances will be left in the possession of the Commissaries of the United States, and copies will be afterwards given in due form to the Magistrates and Municipal officers of such of the said papers and documents as may be necessary to them.

Article III

The inhabitants of the ceded territory shall be incorporated in the Union of the United States and admitted as soon as possible according to the principles of the federal Constitution to the enjoyment of all these rights, advantages and immunities of citizens of the United States, and in the mean time they shall be maintained and protected in the free enjoyment of their liberty, property and the Religion which they profess.

Article IV

There Shall be Sent by the Government of France a Commissary to Louisiana to the end that he do every act necessary as well to receive from the Officers of his Catholic Majesty the Said country and its dependances in the name of the French Republic if it has not been already done as to transmit it in the name of the French Republic to the Commissary or agent of the United States.

Article V

Immediately after the ratification of the present Treaty by the President of the United States and in case that of the first Consul's shall have been previously obtained, the commissary of the French Republic shall remit all military posts of New Orleans and other parts of the ceded territory to the Commissary or Commissaries named by the President to take possession--the troops whether of France or Spain who may be there shall cease to occupy any military post from the time of taking possession and shall be embarked as soon as possible in the course of three months after the ratification of this treaty.

Article VI

The United States promise to execute Such treaties and articles as may have been agreed between Spain and the tribes and nations of Indians until by mutual consent of the United States and the said tribes or nations other Suitable articles Shall have been agreed upon.

Article VII

As it is reciprocally advantageous to the commerce of France and the United States to encourage the communication of both nations for a limited time in the country ceded by the present treaty until general arrangements relative to commerce of both nations may be agreed on; it has been agreed between the contracting parties that the French Ships coming directly from France or any of her colonies loaded only with the produce and manufactures of France or her Said Colonies; and the Ships of Spain coming directly from Spain or any of her colonies loaded only with the produce or manufactures of Spain or her Colonies shall be admitted during the Space of twelve years in the Port of New-Orleans and in all other legal ports-of-entry within the ceded territory in the Same manner as the Ships of the United States coming directly from France or Spain or any of their Colonies without being Subject to any other or greater duty on merchandize or other or greater tonnage than that paid by the citizens of the United. States.

During that Space of time above mentioned no other nation Shall have a right to the Same privileges in the Ports of the ceded territory--the twelve years Shall commence three months after the exchange of ratifications if it Shall take place in France or three months after it Shall have been notified at Paris to the French Government if it Shall take place in the United States; It is however well understood that the object of the above article is to favour the manufactures, Commerce, freight and navigation of France and of Spain So far as relates to the importations that the French and Spanish Shall make into the Said Ports of the United States without in any Sort affecting the regulations that the United States may make concerning the exportation of the produce and merchandize of the United States, or any right they may have to make Such regulations.

Article VIII

In future and forever after the expiration of the twelve years, the Ships of France shall be treated upon the footing of the most favoured nations in the ports above mentioned.

Article IX

The particular Convention Signed this day by the respective Ministers, having for its object to provide for the payment of debts due to the Citizens of the United States by the French Republic prior to the 30th Sept. 1800 (8th Vendé miaire an 9) is approved and to have its execution in the Same manner as if it had been inserted in this present treaty, and it Shall be ratified in the same form and in the Same time So that the one Shall not be ratified distinct from the other.

Another particular Convention Signed at the Same date as the present treaty relative to a definitive rule between the contracting parties is in the like manner approved and will be ratified in the Same form, and in the Same time and jointly.

Article X

The present treaty Shall be ratified in good and due form and the ratifications Shall be exchanged in the Space of Six months after the date of the Signature by the Ministers Plenipotentiary or Sooner if possible.

In faith whereof the respective Plenipotentiaries have Signed these articles in the French and English languages; declaring nevertheless that the present Treaty was originally agreed to in the French language; and have thereunto affixed their Seals.

Done at Paris the tenth day of Floreal in the eleventh year of the French Republic; and the 30th of April 1803.

Robt R Livingston [seal]
Jas. Monroe [seal]
Barba Marbois [seal]

Source:

Miller, H. (Ed.), (1931). Treaties and Other International Acts of the United States of America. Volume 2. Documents 1 – 40, 1776 – 1818. Washington: Government Printing Office.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A Christmas Tradition

 

My name is Thelma Lou and I have a story to tell you about a long time Christmas family tradition. My daughter Gertie sat curled up on her grandpa’s lap in da old rockin’ chair by the wood stove. Da red line on the thermometer dipped well below zero as da wind howled through the pines. We all love this time of year when we visit my folks during Gertie’s winter break from school.

            I came from the kitchen with two steaming mugs of hot chocolate. Gertie poked at da mini marshmallows bobbing on top. Then she licked the chocolate off her fin-gertips and grinned all Chesire cat like. I settled down on da sofa with my mother’s afghan pulled over my legs and I cracked open my mystery novel.

            “Tell me a story, Grandpa!” Gertie begged. I knew from da twinkle in Pa’s eye and his sly grin toward me that she was about to hear a whopper.

            “Did I ever tell you about the Christmas tradition your Grandma and I started before your mother was born?”

            Gertie shook her head. Even if she had heard da story before, it always grew bigger with each telling.

            Grandpa began. “I bet you didn’t know your Grand-ma and I made some of da best moonshine around.”

            “What is moonshine, Grandpa?”

            I look over my book at my Pa.

            “Oh, it’s something people used to drink in the old days, before there were revenuers up north. They celebrated a lot when they drank it.”

            “Like when we drank raspberry Kool-Aid at my birthday party.”

            “That’s right sweetie, whenever there was moonshine around you could be sure there was going to be a party.” Pa winked at me and continued with his story before I could interrupt it.

            “Every year a few weeks after Thanksgiving, we’d head out into da woods with our best bottle and your Grandma’s Remington shot gun to pick out a tree. It all started when I lost my best chainsaw in a poker game.” Grandpa whispered, “But dat’s another story, and I’d just as soon not bring it up while your Grandma’s within earshot! Now where was I? Oh yeah, how da tradition of shooting da tree got started.”

            “The only thing we had to use to cut down our Christmas tree dat year was your Grandma’s Remington. So we stuck it on the gun rack in our trusty old Ford and we headed out in to da woods to hunt down the perfect spruce.”

            “Before too long we ran into old Gussy. He was a Conservation officer who had to follow every rule in the books. Yer Grandma was worried that he’d write us up for doing something wrong, especially after that incident with the ten pointer in July the year before. So she hid da gun under the seat and commenced to smoochin’ on me like we were out on our first date.”

            “Gussy pulled up next to us and asked us what we were up to. Yer Grandma told him dat she was overcome with passion for me, ever since I helped her trim her bunions dat week. He seemed satisfied with her answer and drove off to leave us to our business.”

            “As soon as we saw his truck disappear, we pulled out da shot gun and the jug of moonshine and we made for the woods.”

            “Before we could make it 15 feet, we heard a loud horn toot behind us. Wouldn’t you know it, our neighbors from down the street, the Bulenskis, had decided to go for a little drive in da forest dat day. They asked us what we were doin.’ We figured they could keep a secret, so yer Grandma told them how we planned to get our tree dat year.”

            “They thought that was a grand idea. Billy ran back home to get his rifle and when he got back, he and Hildie joined us on our adventure.”

            “Of course da news spread like wild fire and da tradition was born. Da ‘Shooting of the Tree’ became a yearly community event. We all took turns being on da lookout for Gussy. We always managed to stay one step ahead of him. But then a new problem arrived on the scene.”

            “What grandpa?”

            “Do you remember hearin’ stories about my Aunt Eartha? She was one of da biggest tree huggin’ creatures you’d ever seen. She tried to hold a rally to get us to stop da tradition, but we still did it anyway. So Eartha changed her tactics and decided to team up with Gussy to catch us in da act.”

            “Yer Grandma and I thought we’d have a little fun with my aunt. Even though she couldn’t kill a tree to cele-brate Christmas, she sure wasn’t afraid to shoot any bunnies for her famous rabbit stew.”

            “What did you do, Grandpa?”

            “Aunt Eartha used to complain all da time about how hard it was to get a good bead on the little buggers in da winter time since they blended in with da snow so well, and her eyesight wasn’t what it used to be.”

            “So we followed her out to one of her favorite huntin’ spots and hid behind some big beech trees. After she moved on, we sneaked out and put a pile of carrots at da base of a clump of spruces.”

            “Sure enough, after a few days those rabbits were coming back all da time to look for more grub. We waited for Eartha to show back up.”

            “There she was with the biggest smile on her face. She lifted her shot gun and Bam! She shot at da rabbit. Well, dat bunny got away, but Eartha had shot a hole clean through da trunk of one of da spruce trees! The tree teetered, then it fell to da ground.”

            “Oh, no,” said Gertie. She covered her mouth and looked very surprised.

            Papa continued. “She took a look around to see if anyone had seen her dreadful deed. Then she slung da trunk of dat spruce tree over her shoulder and dragged it out of da woods. We were flipping blown over. She threw da tree in-to the bed of her pickup and she drove home.”

            “We followed her to her home and peeked in her window. We watched her decorate dat dang thing! Every now and then she’d stop and stare up at da tree and grin. She’d give it a hug and sniff its branches. Aunt Eartha seemed to be sucking in da aroma of dat tree and holding it in her nostrils as long as she could.”

            “Did she know you were watching her?”

            “No. Yer Grandma couldn’t take it anymore. She was laughing so hard at da sight, she was sure Eartha would hear us. So yer Grandma marched over to da front door and banged real hard on it. I kept watching Aunt Eartha through da window. She looked around in a panic. Then she de-cided she better answer the knocking since it kept getting louder.”

            “Eartha stammered. Words were refusing to come out of her mouth right. I thought this was a good time to join da party so I stormed into da house with my hands on my hips.”

            “I was just about to open my mouth and blackmail my aunt so dat she wouldn’t hassle us anymore about our activities when she spoke up, ‘You know, this isn’t such a bad way to celebrate da season. I think I’d like to participate in this tradition next year.’”

            He paused to take a sip of his coffee. He grinned at Gertie. She smiled back and took a sip of her hot chocolate.

            “And that’s just what she did. She even started da event with a bugle call every year! Until she headed for the happy rabbit hunting grounds in da sky.”

            “That’s amazing, Grandpa. Do you have a picture of Aunt Eartha?”

            “Yes, I do. I will show ya after I drink my hot cho-colate.”

            “Did dat really happen, Papa?”

            “Of course it did. I’m surprised yer Ma didn’t tell you dat she and your Pa have carried on da family tradition for years now.” My Pa winked my way again as Gertie climbed down off his lap and scrambled over towards me on da couch to sit next to her ma.

            “Is it true Ma?” Without waiting for an answer she added, “And how come we don’t get to go with you and drink moonshine and help shoot down da tree?”

            Papa got up and patted me on da shoulder, “I think I hear Grandma calling me in da kitchen.”  He shuffled off with a twinkle in his eye.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Are There Pasties in Heaven?

 

Da spring fling was just around da corner and Mabel was struggling to perfect her pasty recipe for da pasty cook off. She was in da kitchen experimenting with pasty recipes. Da house smelled of onions, suet, pork sausage and rutabagas. Flour was strewn all over da counter and on da floor. Mabel’s apron was sprinkled with da white powder. Grease was also streaked on da worn garment. Mabel had a smile on her face picturing herself taking first place in da pasty cook off. She has won every pasty cooking contest for da past ten years.

            Other women and men tried to beat her and take da first place prize which was two cases of Old Milwaukee. Mabel prided herself on holding onto da secrets to da best pasties in da county. Even her husband wasn’t let in on her secrets. She was afraid he would spill da beans when he was drankin’ with his buddies. Most everybody in da U.P. believed pasties are da best food in da world to eat and would have loved to have her recipe.

            Gertie, Dalma Lou’s daughter, was sitting on her Papa’s lap. She thought her Papa knew everything and she had some important questions to ask him. Papa asked Gertie to tell him about what she’s been wonderin.’      

            “Papa, where did pasties come from. Did they come from heaven? They are so yummy.” 

            “Let me tell you about da legend of da first pasty in da U.P., Gertie,” said Papa. He looked down at Gertie and smiled. Papa loved to tell stories. He was known around these parts as da best story teller in da county.

            “Da pasty has a long history of being a cultural food in da U.P. People actually thinks they came from da U.P. We are so well-known for da delicious explosion of flavor. When da first pasty was made in da U.P. is a mystery. This is what I know about its origins. Mining was booming in da 1800s in da U.P. of Michigan and even sooner than dat. There’s been rumors dat copper was discovered in da lower parts of this country like da area where Texas is today, a long time ago dat copper was mined in da U.P. Dat’s another story for another time. Back ta pasties. I was told by my Pa dat pasties were introduced by da Cornish from England back in da early 1800s. I was told dat mining was drying up in England for da Cornish and so some of them decided ta come to da U.P. They brought us a lot of knowledge about mining and they also introduced us to da pasty. Pasties, in those days, served as da main lunch for da miners. It was small, easy to carry and had all they needed in one meal. Pasties normally had potatoes and onions in them. Da other stuff in pasties were added by different groups.”

            “Who are da Cornish, Papa?” asked Gertie.

            “Da Cornish were known ta come from Cornwall, England.”

            Gertie appeared to be satisfied with her Papa’s answer so he decided to continue with his story. “Pasties were easy to heat up for da miners. They would place their pasty on a shovel and hold it over a fire or they would hold their pasties over a head-lamp candle. Ya can see how this would be handy, Gertie.”

            Gertie nodded her head.

            “There’s a proper way ta eat a pasty dat was introduced by da Cornish.”

            “What’s dat, Papa?”

            “Ya need to hold da pasty in your hand and start at da opposite end. Dat’s so if ya don’t eat da entire pasty, you can pick it up later and eat it.”

            “Dat makes sense,” said Gertie. Gertie looked up at her Papa and he tapped her chin.

            “There are some legends tied with our beloved pasties. One involved da Devil who could not cross da Tamar River near Cornwall. Dat was on account dat it was a well-known habit of Cornish women of putting everything into a pasty. Da devil wasn’t brave enough to face such a fate of going up against da all mighty pasty.”

            “Papa, I am afraid of da devil. Do ya think he is going to come after me.”

            “No, my sweet. Yer grandma says lots of prayers ta prevent him from coming after any of us.”

            Gertie climbed off of Papa’s lap and ran up to Grandma and hugged her legs. Grandma looked down at Gertie confused and patted her on da head. She ran back and jumped on her Papa’s lap again.

            “Do ya want to hear more about pasties?”

            “Yes, Papa.”

            “It was also passed down dat a pasty caused da great mine fire in da early 1800s. One of da miners forgot about his pasty dat was being heated on his shovel. There’s so much lard in those pasties dat it caught on fire. Fortunately, none of da miners met their fate dat day.”

            “What else is in a pasty, Papa?”

            “As far as I understand, there’s potatoes, rutabagas, meat, I think yer grandma uses pork sausage and suet, onions and some wonderful seasonings dat your grandma won’t tell me abouts.”

            “Why won’t she tell you, Papa?”

            “I thinks she’s afraid I will tell others about her secret ingredients.”

            “Why doesn’t she want others to know?” asked Gertie.

            “Ya go and ask yer grandma about dat and let me know.”

            Gertie climbed off Papa’s lap and went back into da kitchen to ask her grandma why she didn’t want anyone to know about her pasty recipe.

            “Grandma, why don’t you want anybody to know about what is in yer pasties?” Grandma looked sheepishly at Gertie, wiped her hands on her apron and walked into da living room to confront Papa.

            “What’s up with Gertie’s question?” asked Mabel.

            “I sent Gertie in to ask ya about why youse didn’t want anyone to know yer ingredients because I didn’t know how to answer da question,” replied Papa.

            “I don’t like dat you are filling her head which such nonsense,” said Mabel. Her hands were placed on her hips.

            “Well, why don’t youse want to share yer recipe?” Papa confronted her.

            Mabel was feeling rather sheepish and decided to fess up. “I want to be da winner at da pasty cook off.”

            “But Grandma, you should share yer recipe so everybody can make pasties as good as yer’s.”

            Grandma tapped her finger on her chin and Papa swears he could see a light bulb light up above her head.

            “Gertie, you are so right. This year after I win da contest, I will share my recipe with everyone at da spring fling. You are such a smart little gurl, our little Gertie.” Mabel patted Gertie on da head again.

            Mabel has been fretting over da pasty bake off fer years and she decided it was high time she relaxed and enjoyed da Spring Fling.  She is more than willing to turn over da torch. Let da others take da lead with her recipe or their own recipes. Mabel let out a sigh of relief and sat down heavily on da sofa.

            “Tell us another story, Papa,” said Mabel.

           

           

 

 

 

 

 

Fur Trading Exploitation

 

“No tribe has the right to sell, even to each other, much

less to strangers… Sell a country? Why not sell the air,

the great sea, as well as the earth? Didn’t the Great

Spirit make them all for the use of his children?

-Tecumseh

Shawnee 

Fur trading greatly changed the lives of Native Americans by converting them from hunters and gatherers for their tribal communities to a dependence on fur trading commerce. The main goal of early tribal communities, before the onslaught of European interlopers, was survival often in environments which consisted of harsh climate during the winter months in Canada and northern North America. Before the extensive European invasion, the Indian people only hunted and gathered what they needed to support their communal village and did not over extend their hunting and gathering efforts. Legends foretell how the Indian people and animals had a cohesive relationship based on mutual respect until the white men descended in droves. Wild game became over hunted which threatened the Native Americans’ survival.

Commercial fur trade began with early contact between indigenous population and the European fishermen. The fishermen netted cod in Newfoundland and Quebec. Native Americans traded mink and other small animal pelts for knives, other iron products and cloth with the fishermen. The trade, haphazard at best, continued until around the middle to late sixteenth century when the wearing of beaver hats became the new fashion trend. The demand for beaver furs led to extensive trapping of the furry animals by Native Americans during the harshness of northern winters when the fur was the thickest. From 1634 to 1850 the Michigan fur trade was a prominent business and control of such trade started when the French and the British decided to take part in this profitable business venture. Many battles were fought over the fur-trading business, especially when the animals sought became vastly depleted in specific locations. At first the Indian people were duped into trading furs for mere trinkets and such. Then the Indian people demanded to trade for items such as guns and unfortunately rum and brandy. Liquor became one of the main trade items. Many of the fur traders were of a rough sort, drank plenty and defied the laws of a civil society. Others delved into the wilderness to barter with the Indian people, adopt their ways and marry Native American women. Many Europeans wanted a piece of the lucrative market while fur trading became the only source of income for the Native Americans.

The fur-trading business ended up being catastrophic for the Indian people. Not only was the beaver population depleted, the population of the native people was decreased considerably by the ravages of traders’ diseases to which they had no immunity. Smallpox was the number one killer, with measles, scarlet fever, diphtheria, typhus, whooping cough, and influenza following suit. The introduction of alcohol as a bargaining tool was devastating to the tribal communities. Also, the fur trade created an upheaval of tribal communities as they fought one another and joined forces with European allies to gain control of land bases and its resources (Johnson, 1971).  

 

The earliest French explorers to work with Native Americans regarding fur trading was Jacques Cartier in the 1530s. He traveled the St. Lawrence River and Gulf of St. Lawrence areas. During the 1580s, French trading companies were set up in the region of what was later referred to as New France. Additional explorers such as Chouart, Nicolet, Groseilliers, Radisson and La Salle opened the way in Canada and Michigan for other explorers and fur trade entrepreneurs. Chouart and Groseilliers spent the winter of 1659-60 at Sault Ste. Marie in the current state of Michigan (Johnston, 1971).

French frontiersmen were referred to as coureurs de bois or forest runners. Another name given to these brave men was voyageurs who happened to be canoeists or travelers. The reduction of the beaver population forced the coureurs de bois to go further into the interior of Canada. These canoeists wore brightly woven sashes, deer-skin leggings, and moccasins. On colder days they wore a capote or blanket coat. They were instantly recognizable and stood apart from other men. Voyageurs and coureurs de bois were short and wiry, on average five-foot-six in height. Despite their smaller stature, they were amazingly strong and had an inexhaustible amount of stamina. Samuel de Champlain relied on these brave men and the Indian men to help him with his business ventures which partially involved fur trading.

            Champlain founded the small village of Quebec with 28 men in 1608. In 1630, 103 colonists resided in this community and by 1640 the population had grown to 355.  Champlain was known as the “Father of New France” (Nies, 1996).

            A charter, granted by the British Crown, formed the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1670. The company operated from posts along the coast of Hudson Bay in Canada for approximately 100 years. The negotiation of the Jay’s Treaty in 1794, which defined the northern border, led to the establishment of the American Fur Company owned by John Jacob Astor. In 1816 an act of law was passed which granted only U.S. citizens the right to carry on the fur trade in “Indian Country” in the United States (Carlos and Lewis, 2008). During the booming fur trading years, the demand for fur hats increased the pressure for fur traders to up their game.

            “The main cause of the rising beaver pelt prices in England and France was the increasing demand for beaver hats, which included hats made exclusively with beaver wool and referred to as ‘beaver hat,’ and those hats containing a combination of beaver and a lower cost wool, such as rabbit. These were called ‘felt hat.’ Unfortunately, aggregate consumption series for the eighteenth century for Europe are not available. We do, however, have Gregory King’s contemporary work for England which provides a good starting point… King calculated that consumption of all types of hats was 3.3 million, or nearly one hat per person. King also included a second category, caps of all sorts, for which he estimated consumption at 1.6 million” (Harte, 1991, pg. 293). The potential market as early as 1700 for England alone was nearly 5 million per year dependent on population growth (Carlos and Lewis, 2008).

            Another involved party with the fur trade were the Jesuits, also referred to as the black robe priests. They did not endorse the use of alcohol as a trade item. Intoxicated Indians were unlikely candidates to be converted to Christianity. The Jesuits lobbied in Europe against the use of brandy and rum as trade commodities. Their lobbying efforts were generally unsuccessful. If French alcohol was prohibited, it would be substituted with alcoholic beverages supplied by British colonies.

            The Jesuits, followed the fur traders wherever they went. Both groups were interested in working with the Indian people. The Jesuits wanted to save the Indian people by converting them to Christianity and the fur traders wanted to obtain furs from them at the smallest cost possible. The fur traders were considered a bad influence on the naive tribal people. Many Indian people fell to the abyss of alcohol consumption which damaged their relationships and their health during the early fur trading era supported by uncaring fur traders who wanted to obtain furs as cheap as possible without concern about the damaging effects of alcohol. The influence of alcohol has served as a detriment for Native Americans throughout history to current times and served as a way of deadening the pain of losing their culture, their land and their tribal communities (Conlan,1994).

 

            Fur traders did not have it much better. The daily life of a fur trader was somewhat monotonous and often filled with hardships. Their food and dress, recreation, methods of trade, character, and relationships with the Indian people has served as a continuing point of interest. They had to be of a rugged sort, people who could withstand the elements of harsh weather, and life-threatening obstacles such as hostile Indians, competing fur-traders, starvation and wild animals. Sometimes they had to portage their canoes, supplies, and packs of fur. They were expected to carry a pack of furs that weighed up to 90 pounds sometimes for great distances.

            Their food, which was not of variety, consisted of pemmican, pea soup, wild rice and lyed-corn. To prepare the corn, the corn was boiled in strong lye, then the husk was removed, and the corn was washed and dried. It became soft and could be fried like rice. Pemmican was a dried meat, usually from deer, elk or bison. Later on, beef was used to make pemmican, also. Their daily routines consisted of paddling, hauling, and portaging for approximately 16 hours and then they would collapse from exhaustion. At night they slept by some small or large body of water with a gun by their side. Their coverings would be a blanket and perhaps some brush to add cushion to the hard surface of the ground (Johnston, 1971).

            What enticed these foreboding individuals into these dangerous hunting exploits? Was it the money, was it their relationship with the Indian people, or was it the sheer danger of it all? Men who could paddle, hunt, trap, and speak parts of the Indian tongue proved to be the heartiest of fur traders. These men were a combination of being somewhat civilized and part savage with the latter being the most prominent. 

             

The stories of many Native American people, who turned their lives over to enterprises such as the American Fur Company, were filled with financial loss and other hardships. Indian people were coerced into accumulating debt during President Jefferson’s time in office. Jefferson believed the country was run by the white people and during that time period the general population strived to rid the country of the “Indian problem.”

            To appease the Americans, Jefferson decided to set up the Indian people to turn over their land holdings by using a market economy. More and more white settlers were moving to this country and using more of the land’s rich resources. Trading posts were put up in various locations to entice the Indian people to get their needs met and at the same time accumulate debt of which they had no means of paying back. They ended up giving up large portions of the land they lived on. The Native Americans faced the likelihood of starving if they did not depend on the trading posts for food because they were either depressed, saddled with alcoholism and the wild game they relied on for food was over hunted by the white settlers. They were in a dire situation due to the onslaught of white settlers (Ambrose, 1996). 

 

            To get an idea of how much beaver pelts were worth at the trading posts, in 1784 the Hudson Bay Company prepared a “Table of Equivalents” which listed the number of beavers required to trade for various items. Throughout history prices have gone up, not down, for items purchased in stores. It would be safe to note that it would have taken many more beavers to get the same wares during the early 1800s. In 1784, the following table was used to place a value on specific items, a concept that was foreign to the Indian people.

 

·         1 Beaver = 9 Arrow Heads

·         1 Beaver = 1 yard of cloth

·         4 Beavers = 1 gallon of brandy

·         11 Beavers = 1 gun

·         1 Beaver = ¾ pounds of beads

(Brazer, 1993)

 

            Moving from a bartering system to a market economy was difficult for the Native American people. Many were confused about this concept. Bartering is a form of transaction in which goods or services were exchanged for other goods or services without mediums of exchange such as money. This form of exchange was practiced by the Native Americans and they believed in the concept of reciprocity. Trade was carried out in a respectful and fair manner.          The beaver they hunted and trapped for the Europeans provided sustenance for the people of their village. In the past they used all parts of the animals they hunted. For example, the animal intestines referred to as sinew served as the thread to sew hides together. Before the fur-trading days the Indian people would exchange furs for things such as cooking utensils, pots, pans, guns and alcoholic beverages. Brandy and rum were often the trade items of choice for the British and French. They would trade vast amounts of alcohol because it was regarded as a cheap commodity in exchange for furs.           

When the settlers wanted to take over the Native American homelands, Indian people did not know how to place a value on it. They did not know what a stream or a tract of forest was worth in terms of gunpowder, iron pots or cloth. They went along with the government treaty negotiators who wrote on paper what specific land holdings were valued. They did not understand how that could be determined, considering the change of seasons and the yield of the hunt. The traders often short changed the unsuspecting Indian people and to back up their claims they would show them a statement of accounts. These statements resembled a foreign language to them.

The Indian people felt confused, hungry and cold, and they were losing their homelands. Eventually, they realized they lost by playing by a corrupt set of rules. By the time they realized they were being cheated, it was too late. The beaver population was depleted by the white settlers as well as other wild game such as deer. To make matters even more confusing, mostly French fur traders, married Indian women which created a large number of “mixed-bloods” or “half-breeds.” Many of these individuals maintained their associations with the fur trade and tribal communities. The fur trading exploits led to many difficult problems from alcoholism to a loss of their cultural identity and home lands. They became dependent on fur trading to support their communities. Fur trading greatly altered the lives of the Native Americans as a result of the onslaught of many Europeans invading their land to satisfy the whims of the Europeans.