Discovering Our Cultural Values and Identity

 

“The point of the journey is not just healing. It’s also

recovering the truest, most spontaneous, joyful, and

creative core of ourselves.”

Gloria Steinem

We establish a sense of belonging by learning about our cultural roots leading us down a path of discovery. We can meet others who are on the same paths as we are and they can provide us with positive support and encouragement. Sometimes people can be their own worst enemy and do the opposite of what is needed.  For example, many Euro-Americans have lost touch with their cultural origins. A person of European descent once said “What about the white people?  We left our families of origin to move to this country and forego our cultural ties to those communities we left behind. We have suffered also.” Yes, many Euro-Americans did suffer. All of the people in the world resided in some form of tribal community during the distant past. For the sake of becoming mobile societies, a multitude of people have lost valuable connections to their cultural roots. The results of the Aboriginal Healing Project in Canada demonstrated the importance of returning to our cultural heritage. Cultural intervention has been associated with successful healing practices concerning overcoming the harmful effects of historical trauma. 

            Activities aimed at renewing and reviving Native American cultures have contributed to individual, family, and community healing. These activities include Elders’ teachings, storytelling, language programs, activities involving nature, feasts, Pow Wows, learning traditional art forms, harvesting medicines, drumming, singing, and dancing. Culture is connected to the collective values and worldviews of all people. Culture is the shared set of beliefs derived from the group’s practice of a shared language, behaviors, customs and knowledge and a common understanding of reality, history and future for a specific group. Cultural interventions tend to be collective activities and these activities promote a sense of belonging.

Many of us have merely existed in limbo trying to figure out who we are and what is really important to us. I myself have struggled with determining my own cultural values and identity.  In order to get to the bottom of this dilemma I decided to gather as much information as possible about the various cultures I was associated with due to my own personal birthright. I am of Indian, French and Dutch descent so I delved into what it meant to belong to these ethnic backgrounds. What part of those cultural heritages best describes who I am? My examination of my cultural roots revealed a lot about who I am by examining my values. 

During my exploration I discovered I place a lot of importance on work ethic, honesty, compassion for all of the Creator’s creatures and people, and last but not least, fairness. For example, my Indian side brings into the forefront my strong belief in honesty. Throughout history Indian people would rather face death than go against their values. Being honest has gotten me into trouble on many occasions. I volunteer at our local animal shelter, so guess what else is important to me.  I love all animals and believe it is our responsibility to make sure they are taken care of and protected and I recycle a multitude of things from plastic to paper to help preserve the earth’s resources. We either compost our vegetable waste or bring this waste to a place where animals can eat it. We have fed countless deer and crows. I also have respect for elders and place a lot of importance on their teachings. 

I probed into my Dutch side and found out people in the Netherland’s practiced political campaign strategies which tie closely to what I believe in, such as the use of public service announcements to announce the candidates’ platforms when running for governmental positions instead the use of campaign contributions to enable political candidates to flood the market with information that discredits their opponents. The Dutch people are also known to have a strong work ethic and place value on being thrifty, practical, and well organized. The Dutch people are known to dislike displays of wealth, because this contradicts their egalitarian beliefs. The term egalitarian represents a belief in the equality of all people, especially in the political, economic, and/or social realms. I also believe in the egalitarian mindset. 

When exploring my French heritage, the first thing that comes to mind is my passion for life. There are so many days when I wake up saying to myself “I love my life,” even the tough times and the lessons those hard times have brought to me. I greatly appreciate art and I am creative in many ways. I am not so much fashion or cuisine conscious although I have been known to indulge in a crepe now and again. The French government promotes and supports the French culture through education and government policies. 

Take note about what is important to you and make a list of your values.  Explore where these values came from; for example if you know you are of Indian descent, what is the significance as far as your own personal belief system. It was vital for me to gain a full understanding of my values and where these values originated from such as my Indian heritage.  My values are very important to me and those who forsake their values to please others pay a high price. My cultural values strongly represent who I am. We would be hard pressed to find many people who can say they are 100% Native American or any other ethnic group for that matter in this country. The United States is a melting pot of diverse ethnicity. We need to consider other factors as well when questioning our cultural values and making the determination about what is important to us. 

The following exercise is designed to help us enhance our cultural awareness. We can meet with family members and/or work by ourselves to examine responses to the following questions in our effort to explore our own culture:

 ·         Who took care of us when our mother or caregiver was away from home?  At what age were we left alone? At what age were children in our family given responsibility to care for the other children in the family?

·         What form of discipline or punishment did our family use most often? Did this form of discipline effect how we felt about our parents? How so? Were there any kinds of discipline or punishment our parents wouldn't use because they felt it was harmful to us?

·         What were the family rules about meals? Did everyone sit down at the table together? Who cooked? Did our family cook regular meals every day? Could we eat whatever we wanted, when we chose? What kind of food did we eat most?

·         Did our family have different expectations for specific children in the family? Older or younger children? Boys and girls?

·         Who made what kinds of decisions in our family? Which were made by our mother, our father, or other family members? Any joint decisions? What influence was there from extended family, grandparents, others living in the home? What decisions were children permitted to make for themselves?

·         Who did our family turn to for help and support in times of need or trouble? Did we help ourselves?  Did we turn to immediate or extended family? Did our family have a wide range of extended family and friends? A church group? A community? Did we turn to professional helpers such as a plumber, electrician, counselors, and/or the bank for example?

·         Did adults other than our parents care for us for a period of time or have a strong influence on our development? How did we feel about being cared for by people other than our parents? What was our relationship with relatives? What part did aunts, uncles, cousins, grandparents, non-blood family members play in our lives?

·         What were our family's values and beliefs concerning the following:

Respecting our Elders

Formal education

Finances, money, and the importance of money and success

Rites of passage

Religion and spirituality

Codes of Conduct

The role of reciprocity (a mutual interchange of favors and privileges)

Appreciation for diversity (learning valuable lessons from other cultures)

The major life goals our families had for us

·         Which of our family's values and patterns of behavior do we still adhere to and which have we changed? 

            The practice of cultural interventions cannot be considered the entire part of our healing; but it will open the door to more intensive healing by creating a sense of identity, pride, and belonging. It can lead to developing a better sense of underlying values such as wholeness and balance. I remember the feelings I experience when I attend Pow Wows. Listening to the drums and watching the dancers brings me feelings of gratitude, warmth and a sense of belonging.  Healing is sacred and there are various forms of cultural practices that may enhance our healing process.

The most important event in an Indian child’s life was, and continues to be with many tribal entities, the receipt of personal identity through a naming ceremony. The given name permitted the child to have a place by the tribal fire and be a part of the tribal thoughts and discussions. The name was a gift from the spirits, inherited through a naming ceremony by the person bestowing the name, usually soon after the child’s birth. The given name was to be respected for its origin within the tribe and cherished by the one receiving it. The children’s names would come to the leaders and other adults through dreams and visions. Sometimes children would receive the name of a namesake who passed. In the past, no one could have the same name when they resided in a traditional Native American village. Today, Indian people of all ages can receive their spiritual names.  I received my Indian name from a spiritual healer when I was in my 30s and the reception of my name helped me to further establish my personal identity. Traditional healers can be located by contacting local tribal offices. 

            The function of the healing circles is to re-connect individuals with the parts of themselves that have been injured and to connect with others through a process of voluntary, personal, and mutual disclosure.  Healing circles permit every participant to actively participate as teachers as well as learners; to be healed as well as to heal. The support created in these circles offers therapeutic properties. The most sacred teachings derived from these healing experiences are those which arise from the collective insights of the participants who fully participate in the healing circle in a supportive manner. There are many ways in which we can delve into our cultural heritage and there are many interesting tidbits about Native American cultures.

Ceremonies were often held to celebrate various stages in the lives of the Native Americans. Ghost suppers were held to honor those who passed on. The ghost supper has been a traditional fall ceremony of Indian people throughout much of history. The time when leaves are falling on the ground was considered a time for remembering and honoring those who walked on. The ghost supper has been held in many different ways. One common denominator includes the serving of favorite foods of the ones who are being remembered. Usually a place is set at the table for the one(s) who passed on. The plate was fixed with a variety of the loved one’s favorite foods and left for the entire evening. Ancestry has been paramount for Indian people and ghost suppers are a way of celebrating our ancestry. Ghost suppers served as a venue for family stories and fond memories of the deceased. Families would visit another home and eat the food they prepared. Then the family would be invited to their home and so on. This fostered community awareness, and encouraged community trust and sharing. 

            Indian people of all ages have participated in fasting activities. Fasting usually takes place each spring and fall to help seek new direction in life by shedding old or negative energy and replenishing with positive energy. Fasting may take place in the woods, a fasting lodge or on a vision quest. The vision quest is a highly personal ceremony that serves as an integral part of the process of self-reflection and self-understanding. Vision quests served as an important developmental ritual for both boys and girls during their adolescent years and have served as a part of a lifelong process of learning, balance, and growth.

The sweat lodge ceremony is another way Indian people have united for a common purpose, which was to commune with the Creator and other spirit guides for healing purposes and spiritual guidance. The sweat lodge ceremony served as a vehicle to give thanks, and pray to Gitchi Manito (the Creator) and the attendees’ spirit guides. These ceremonies continue to be held today. 

Praying and giving thanks is a good way of communicating with the universe.  Prayers come before all else at many gatherings of Indian people.  It is important to give thanks for all that is provided to us such as the food we have to eat, the water we have to drink, and our loved ones. Humor and play were considered integral components to good physical, mental, emotional and spiritual health, especially during the long winter months. 

            Pow Wows are also considered spiritual events and continue to be held throughout most of North America. They are a way in which the Anishanaabeg (original people) socialize and celebrate their heritage. The term “ Pow Wow” comes from the Algonquian derivative of “Pauau.”  It originally meant curing ceremony. Pow Wows signify a time in which Anishanaabeg could sing, dance, feast and give gifts. The main emphasis of this spiritual practice continues to be with the powers of nature, which are Father Sun, Mother Earth, mountains, rivers, clouds and animals. The traditional female and male dancers celebrate Mother Earth’s gifts. Different forms of dancing are used to elicit rain for crops, preparation for hunting, food gathering, healing, and warfare as well as a way of extending respect and giving thanks.  Many of these dances are handed down from one generation to next. 

Storytelling provided a lens in which the Indian people could recall and honor the past, understand the present, and foresee the future. In the past legends told during storytelling sessions served as the primary method for teaching children about the philosophy and/or about the worldviews of the Indian people. There are two types of stories or legends, one form tells about anecdotes or narratives about exceptional events and experiences, while the other informs us about sacred stories of our ancestors. For example, every culture has a creation story, this type of legend tells us about an exceptional event. 

            Smudging is a spiritual ceremony using smoke from the burning of the four sacred herbs:  sage, cedar, tobacco, and sweet grass.  These medicinal plants are used to cleanse people, places, food and objects.  Smudging is used to erase negative energy, creating an opening for positive healing energy.  If smudging occurs during a healing circle, the burning medicine may be placed in the center of the circle which connects the participants to their inner sacred fire.

The four sacred plants are often utilized in sweat lodge ceremonies, Pow Wows, ghost suppers, naming ceremonies and other spiritual practices. These sacred plants complete the circle of life. Their smoke can provide cleansing for the mind, body, spirit and soul. They can remove negative energy. It has been very important for the Anishanaabeg and other cultural groups to bestow gratitude for all the Great Mystery has provided to them. Keeping the idea of gratitude in their minds and the proper use of all the sacred plants helps those who use these sacred plants to convey their personal meaning of thankfulness. The plants carry additional significance, such as their representation of the four directions and the four stages of our lives: childhood, adolescence, young adulthood and elderly. Other herbs and spices are also used under the direction of a medicine man and other spiritual healers. 

            Ways in which to explore our cultural heritage may include meeting with other family members and ask what ethnic groups our family came from before coming over to this country if we are not only of Native American descent. If you are of Indian descent, again meet with elders, attend cultural events such as Pow Wows and read books about the Indian and other cultures you may be connected. Again, many of us have several lines of descent from European, Native American to Asian.  Explore your heritage by using the internet. Use an internet search engine to obtain information about your culture heritage. Google is a popular search engine on the internet. If you do not have a computer or the internet, go to the public library to conduct your research. Your exploration and discovery of your cultural values and identity will prove to be very rewarding.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A Nightmarish Slumber

 

(By Sharon Brunner) 

A lone petunia standing proudly between

a prison of weeds, relaxed, not rattled.

Weeds ruffled taunting the petunia to

give into the bellows of the tyrannical force

Pickled beyond recognition in their harshness.

 

A precocious persimmon begins its new life

on the branch of the ebony wood family,

ebony, dark, prevailing, and mysterious.

Shadows lurk amongst the dusk,

swaying long branches, hosting secrets.

 

A snake slithers in and out of the thick patch

of a pencil thin layer of dead spiders, bugs and

small rodents serving as fertilizer

for the ebony stronghold and its peers.

The snake wriggled free from the trail of death.

 

The persimmon taps the branch quietly

to warn the petunia of looming danger.

The snake is deterred by a dog, running.

The flower is rescued and reveled in its

newly found freedom amid its weed sanctuary.

 

A hand rifled through the leaves

of the ebony fortress, rests a moment.

Breaths a grateful sigh as the hand retreats,

celebrating another day on this earthly plane.

The petunia and persimmon nod knowingly.

 

Darkness blankets the grassy meadow.

Slumber interrupted by a nightmare.

A long shiny knife with jagged edges

pierces through the soft flesh,

exposing a red, asterisk center.

 

 

 

Louisiana Purchase

 

"Let the Land rejoice, for you have bought Louisiana for a Song."

                Gen. Horatio Gates to President Thomas Jefferson, July 18, 1803

“Robert Livingston and James Monroe closed on the sweetest real estate deal of the millennium when they signed the Louisiana Purchase Treaty in Paris on April 30, 1803. They were authorized to pay France up to $10 million for the port of New Orleans and the Floridas. When offered the entire territory of Louisiana–an area larger than Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Spain and Portugal combined–the American negotiators swiftly agreed to a price of $15 million.

Although President Thomas Jefferson was a strict interpreter of the Constitution who wondered if the U.S. Government was authorized to acquire new territory, he was also a visionary who dreamed of an "empire for liberty" that would stretch across the entire continent. As Napoleon threatened to take back the offer, Jefferson squelched whatever doubts he had, submitted the treaty to Congress, and prepared to occupy a land of unimaginable riches.

The Louisiana Purchase added 828,000 square miles of land west of the Mississippi River to the United States. For roughly 4 cents an acre, the United States had purchased a territory whose natural resources amounted to a richness beyond anyone's wildest calculations” (Miller, 1931, para. 1 - 3).

France claimed a large chunk of land that ran from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico. Land in which many indigenous people resided. The land exchanged hands between Spain and France and ended up in France’s possession much to the surprise of President Jefferson. At the same time, tension rose between France and Britain. The Island of Saint Dominique lost appeal for Napolean Bonapart after slave rebellions and British interference. After negotiations, France sold a young United States the Louisiana territory. End results of the sale was the migration of many white settlers, battles between Native Americans and pioneers, the ravages of disease and a huge loss of land and its valuable resources for the indigenous people. The Louisiana Purchase was the largest land takeover in the history of this country without the act of war playing a part.

            In April of 1682, Robert Cavelier, Sieur (Lord) de La Salle, a French Explorer, made claim to land near the mouth of the Mississippi River when he read a declaration before a group of confused Indian people. He pronounced his claim, for his country, the entire Mississippi basin. Cavelier named the area for Prince Louis the Great. Hence the name Louisiana which was in honor of Louis XIV.

            The French explorer Jean-Baptise le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville later founded a settlement near the site of La Salle’s claim named it Nouvelle Orleans for Philippe, Duke of Orleans and Regent of France. By the time of the Louisiana Purchase, the population of whites, slaves of African American descent and Native Americans numbered approximately 8,000 within the Louisiana Territory (Harris, 2003).

           

            Ownership of Louisiana went back and forth between France and Spain. Spain took over and had control of the territory of Louisiana in October 1800 when Napolean made a secret deal to take back New Orleans and Louisiana from Spain. He wished to amass and send an army to protect his land holdings. Jefferson did not learn until 1801 that Napolean had reclaimed Louisiana. Faced with trepidation about how powerful France became, he did not want France to have control of the United State’s trade routes. Jefferson made plans about how he was going to purchase Louisiana from France. He equated France’s ownership of Louisiana as big of threat as the Revolutionary War (Cerami, 2003).

            Napolean pondered his hold of the island of Saint Domingue which could provide France and other countries with a vast amount of sugar, cotton, cocoa and coffee. France could use the port of New Orleans to ship the crops to Europe. The residents of Saint Domingue believed the French were going to reinstate slavery like what happened on Guadeloupe. Slavery was reinstated. The slave population suffered from food shortages and brutally forced hard labor. The slaves revolted which forced Napolean to sends more troops. More than half of the French army died from diseases, mostly Yellow Fever while at Saint Domingue. Napolean’s interest in the island diminished severely (Cerami, 2003).

Napolean feared a war with Britain may ensue and he did not have the funds to pay for such a war. He thought Britain may attack Louisiana from Canada and he would rather fight Britain from France and not Canada.

            The treaty which permitted the U.S. to use Spanish territory on the Mississippi had expired. American shipments could not be stored in New Orleans warehouses. Merchandise and produce had to be left on open wharfs while awaiting shipment to the other locations which risked exposure to weather and theft. The U.S. economy was in jeopardy.

            Senator James Ross of Pennsylvania drafted a resolution which requested Jefferson to form a 50,000 man army to take over the city of New Orleans. France and the U.S. definitely had a stake in the outcome of the ownership of Louisiana.

            French Minister, Francois de Barbe-Marbois, Robert Livingston, a New Yorker and the American Minster of France and James Monroe, former member of Congress and former governor of Virginia met in Paris on April 12^th to discuss the sale of Louisiana. Much to their surprise Napolean, was more than ready to sell and confirmed and stated his asking price of $22,500,000. Livingston told him the price needed to be lowered considerably.

            Barbe-Marbois stalled pretending that Napolean lost interest in the sale. By April 27^th he told Americans that Napolean firmly agreed to a selling price of $15,000,000. The treaty was signed by the three men on May 2 but was backdated to April 30. Livingston did not have permission to carry out the land deal but they needed to act fast. Nearly doubling the size of America could help make it a world power in the future.

Jefferson approved the purchase and requested the Senate to ratify the Louisiana Purchase Treaty in which they voted 24 to 7 on October 20, 1803. Congress approved the treaty. Money needed to be borrowed in the form of bonds from European countries which had to be paid back in 15 years. Business took time to be carried out because transatlantic mail took weeks and sometimes months. Finally, Louisiana belonged to the United States (Harris, 2003).

Fifteen states joined the union as the result of the Louisiana Purchase: Louisiana; Missouri; Arkansas; Texas; Iowa; Minnesota; Kansas; Nebraska; Colorado; North Dakota; South Dakota; Montana; Wyoming; Oklahoma; and New Mexico. Some of the aforementioned states were entirely within the boundaries of the Louisiana Purchase and others were also a part of the deal struck with Mexico after the Mexican/American War (Raum, 2014). States developed statehood as a result of the 1787 Northwest Ordinance in which land was considered a territory that had a population of at least five thousand and full-fledged statehood would occur when the population reached 60,000. Self-governance applied for territories and states according to the ordinance (Cerami, 2003).

The Louisiana Purchased with an accumulated land mass of approximately 828,000 square miles led to a great westward migration. White settlers believed they had a right to move  to the uncharted territories. The Indian population did not fare well after the purchase. Much of the game, land and other valuable resources were taken over by white settlers. They faced starvation and died from diseases such as small pox. Many Native Americans lost their lives when they fought against white settlers or American armies while they tried to hold onto their land. The Louisiana Purchase represented land purchased from a country by a country who were not the original inhabitants.

 

Are There Pasties in Heaven?

 

The spring fling was just around the corner and Mabel was struggling to perfect her pasty recipe for the pasty cook off. She was in the kitchen experimenting with pasty recipes. The house smelled of onions, suet, pork sausage and rutabagas. Flour was strewn all over the counter and on the floor. Mabel’s apron was sprinkled with the white powder. Grease also streaked the worn garment. Mabel had a smile on her face picturing herself taking first place in the pasty cook off. She has won every pasty cooking contest for the past ten years.

            Other women and men tried to beat her and take the first place prize which was two cases of Old Milwaukee. Mabel prided herself on holding onto the secrets to the best pasties in the county. Even her husband wasn’t let in on her secrets. She was afraid he would spill the beans when he was drinking with his buddies. Most everybody in the U.P. believed pasties are da best food in the world to eat and would have loved to have her recipe.

            Gertie, Thelma Lou’s daughter, was sitting on her Papa’s lap. She thought her Papa knew everything and she had some important questions to ask him. Papa asked Gertie to tell him about what she’s been wondering.     

            “Papa, where did pasties come from. Did they come from heaven? They are so yummy.” 

            “Let me tell you about da legend of da first pasty in da U.P., Gertie,” said Papa. He looked down at Gertie and smiled. Papa loved to tell stories. He was known around these parts as da best story teller in da county.

            “Da pasty has a long history of being a cultural food in da U.P. People actually thinks they came from da U.P. We are so well-known for da delicious explosion of flavor. When da first pasty was made in da U.P. is a mystery. This is what I know about its origins. Mining was booming in da 1800s in da U.P. of Michigan and even sooner than dat. There’s been rumors dat copper was discovered in da lower parts of this country like da area where Texas is today, a long time ago dat copper was mined in da U.P. Dat’s another story for another time. Back ta pasties. I was told by my Pa dat pasties were introduced by da Cornish from England back in da early 1800s. I was told dat mining was drying up in England for da Cornish and so some of them decided ta come to da U.P. They brought us a lot of know-ledge about mining and they also introduced us to da pasty. Pasties, in those days, served as da main lunch for da miners. It was small, easy to carry and had all they needed in one meal. Pasties normally had potatoes and onions in them. Da other stuff in pasties were added by different groups.”

            “Who are da Cornish, Papa?” asked Gertie.

            “Da Cornish were known ta come from Cornwall, England.”

            Gertie appeared to be satisfied with her Papa’s answer so he decided to continue with his story. “Pasties were easy to heat up for da miners. They would place their pasty on a shovel and hold it over a fire or they would hold their pasties over a head-lamp candle. Ya can see how this would be handy, Gertie.”

            Gertie nodded her head.

            “There’s a proper way ta eat a pasty dat was introduced by da Cornish.”

            “What’s dat, Papa?”

            “Ya need to hold da pasty in your hand and start at da opposite end. Dat’s so if ya don’t eat da entire pasty, you can pick it up later and eat it.”

            “Dat makes sense,” said Gertie. Gertie looked up at her Papa and he tapped her chin.

            “There are some legends tied with our beloved pasties. One involved da Devil who could not cross da Tamar River near Cornwall. Dat was on account dat it was a well-known habit of Cornish women of putting every-thing into a pasty. Da devil wasn’t brave enough to face such a fate of going up against da all mighty pasty.”

            “Papa, I am afraid of da devil. Do ya think he is going to come after me.”

            “No, my sweet. Yer grandma says lots of prayers ta prevent him from coming after any of us.”

            Gertie climbed off of Papa’s lap and ran up to Grandma and hugged her legs. Mabel looked down at Gertie confused and patted her on the head. She ran back and jumped on her Papa’s lap again.

            “Do ya want to hear more about pasties?”

            “Yes, Papa.”

            “It was also passed down dat a pasty caused da great mine fire in da early 1800s. One of da miners forgot about his pasty dat was being heated on his shovel. There’s so much lard in those pasties dat it caught on fire. Fortu-nately, none of da miners met their fate dat day.”

            “What else is in a pasty, Papa?”

            “As far as I understand, there’s potatoes, rutabagas, meat, I think yer grandma uses pork sausage and suet, onions and some wonderful seasonings dat yer grandma won’t tell me about.”

            “Why won’t she tell you, Papa?”

            “I think she’s afraid I will tell others about her secret ingredients.”

            “Why doesn’t she want others to know?” asked Gertie.

            “Go ask yer grandma about dat and let me know.”

            Gertie climbed off her Papa’s lap and went back into the kitchen.

            “Grandma, why don’t you want anybody to know about what is in yer pasties?” Grandma looked sheepishly at Gertie, wiped her hands on her apron and walked into da living room to confront Papa.

            “What’s up with Gertie’s question?” asked Mabel.

            “I sent Gertie in to ask ya about why ya didn’t want anyone to know yer ingredients because I didn’t know how to answer da question,” replied Papa.

            “I don’t like dat ya are filling her head which such nonsense,” said Mabel. Her hands were placed on her hips.

            “Well, why don’t ya want to share yer recipe?” Papa confronted her.

            Mabel was feeling rather sheepish and decided to fess up. “I want to be da winner at da pasty cook off.”

            “But Grandma, you should share yer recipe so everybody can make pasties as good as yer’s.”

            Grandma tapped her finger on her chin and Papa swears he could see a light bulb light up above her head.

            “Gertie, you are so right. This year after I win da contest, I will share my recipe with everyone at da spring fling. You are such a smart little gurl, our little Gertie.” Mabel patted Gertie on da head again.

            Mabel has been fretting over da pasty bake off fer years and she decided it was high time she relaxed and enjoyed da Spring Fling.  She is more than willing to turn over da torch and let others take da lead with her recipe or their own recipes. Mabel let out a sigh of relief and sat down heavily on da sofa.

            “Tell us another story, Papa,” said Mabel.

           

           

 

 

 

Indian Boarding Schools

 

The Indian Education Act of 1891 gave authority to government officials to control the location, activities and treatment of all Indian children and mandated the collection and transportation of tribal children to Indian boarding schools. Total control of the Indian children’s education was viewed as the most feasible option to achieve assimilation and the adaptation of a perceived “civilized” lifestyle for Native Americans. The governmental officials believed the children’s separation from their families would reduce their families’ influence. Some Indian people managed to survive with little to no repercussions after attending these institutions, however, for the majority of Indian people, the boarding school initiative made more of a negative impact than all other efforts to destroy the Indian people which included massacres, starvation, disease, loss of land, and Christianity. The outcome of the boarding school legislation was a vulnerable population laced with disease, death, poverty, and other social ills, such as rates of domestic violence, alcoholism, child abuse and neglect higher than any other sectors of the population. Ongoing cultural oppression, health disparities and a lack of access to services and economic opportunity coupled with chronic poverty, have depleted hope for many tribal families. The cumulative effects of chronic stress and unresolved historical trauma have led to an increased risk for developing psychological and behavioral disorders. The negative impact of the enforced boarding school legislation still resonates with many Native American families today. 

            “The truth about the US Indian boarding school policy has largely been written out of the history books. There were more than 350 government-funded, and often church-run, Indian Boarding Schools across the US in the 19th and 20th centuries. Indian children were forcibly abducted by government agents, sent to schools hundreds of miles away, and beaten, starved, or otherwise abused when they spoke their native languages. Between 1869 and the 1960s, it’s likely that hundreds of thousands of Native American children were removed from their homes and families and placed in boarding schools operated by the federal government and the churches. Though we don’t know how many children were taken in total, by 1900 there were 20,000 children in Indian boarding schools, and by 1925 that number had more than tripled. The U.S. Native children that were voluntarily or forcibly removed from their homes, families, and communities during this time were taken to schools far away… Many children never returned home and their fates have yet to be accounted for by the U.S. government” (The National Native American Boarding School Healing Coalition, N.D., para. 3).

            When boarding schools were first established families, forced to rely on the U.S. government for sustenance, faced the threat of losing their rations, annuities and other goods if they did not let the government take their children and place them in these cold and harsh institutions. A compulsory attendance law was passed by Congress in 1891. As a result of the poor economy, many parents felt they had no choice but to send their children to the boarding schools because they could not provide for them (Child, 2000). Some of the children were sometimes provided better care when they attended the boarding schools because of the problems their parents faced such as alcoholism. Other reasons why they attended the boarding schools included racism which was endemic towards Native Americans at the public schools or they had cousins, siblings and other people they knew who attended the schools.

The concept of the boarding school initiative began in 1875 when Richard Henry Pratt was given responsibility of 72 Indian men charged with murder and rapine (the act of seizing property by force) at Fort Marion in St. Augustine, Florida. During their stay, these prisoners served as laborers to offset the cost of running the prison. They performed cleaning and maintenance duties. Pratt rehabilitated these men. The prisoners were introduced to reading and arithmetic in a classroom setting and worked part time at odd jobs at St. Augustine. The Indian men adopted the appearance and characteristics of the Euro-American population. These same Indian men were later placed in jobs without guards. Following Pratt’s efforts to rehabilitate the Indian men, the Carlisle Indian Boarding School was established by Pratt with support of the federal government in 1879. The boarding schools were fashioned after the same rehabilitative principles as the prison program, which included the school attendants serving as laborers to offset costs (Child, 2000).  

“A great general has said that the only good Indian is a dead one, and that high sanction of his destruction has been an enormous factor in promoting Indian massacres. In a sense, I agree with the sentiment, but only in this: that all the Indians there is in the race should be dead. Kill the Indian in him, and save the man.”
— Gen. Richard Henry Pratt 

In 1879, Pratt established the Carlisle Boarding School in Carlisle, Pennsylvania which served as a cruel assimilation and education project. Native American children from various tribes and various locations from around the country were kidnapped from reservations where they were sequestered with their families by the U.S. government. The school employees transported the children to the school where they succumbed to abuse and stripped of any semblance of their culture and self-respect, completely traumatized. Their hair was chopped off (their long hair represented their connection to Mother Earth, growth of their spirit, extrasensory perception and connection to all things.). The school employees scrubbed them with kerosene and they were forbidden to use their native language, only the English language. They had to wear foreign clothing. In the effort to reform nondominant cultures, they inflicted irreversible damage (Irving, 2014). By 1917, the final year of operation of the Carlisle Boarding School, there were 58 tribes represented in the student body (Child, 2000).

The Indian children were given meaningless English names when they attended the boarding schools. In the Native American tribal way of life, one was not permitted to own anything that was provided to them by the Creator. The land, food and other necessities were bestowed to them to use and must be honored. The only thing that could be owned was their given names. Only one person in a village had a specific name, and this name was derived by spiritual means such as visions, dreams and naming ceremonies. Names provided their identity throughout their lifetime. When English names were given to the children at the boarding schools as a part of the assimilation process, this led to identity confusion (Reyner and Eder, 2004).  

“Conversion to Christianity was also deemed essential to the cause. Indian boarding schools were expected to develop a curriculum of religious instruction, placing emphasis on the Ten Commandments, the Beatitudes and Psalms. Implanting ideas of sin and a sense of guilt were part of Sunday schools. Christianity governed gender relations at the schools and most schools invested their energy in keeping the sexes apart, in some cases endangering the lives of the students by locking girls in their dormitories at night — meaning they could not get out, even in the case of fire...” (American Indian Relief Council, N.D., para. 14).

The religious instruction added to the confusion and degradation of many Indian children. Oftentimes, they were abused in various ways by the same people who were providing religious instruction. Children who demonstrated resistance to the teaching practices and the regimented authority were subjected to humiliation and harsh punishments. They suffered whippings and unusual torture such as standing on their tiptoes with arms outstretched while their hands were hit with wooden boards and rulers. The treatment of boys was typically more severe than that of girls. Ruthless punishment occurred when children tried to run away, although this did not deter many from attempting to do so.

It may be difficult to imagine the shock these children experienced when they were yanked from their homes and families, stripped of their cultural identity, while forced to attend a foreign environment filled with fear and hostility. A strange form of religion was forced upon them while told they were savages. However, the dominant population continued to see a solid purpose for the establishment of these institutions. The Carlisle School led to the establishment of many similar boarding school institutions in various locations around the country with intentions of civilizing the Native American children to prepare them to fit into American society as servants and laborers. The transformation included vast changes in religion, family structure, economics (how they earned a living), how they expressed emotion, and so much more (Irving, 2014). Their loss of identity formed mixed messages about their heritage and about themselves, resulting in contempt for those in power as well as their parents and elders.  

Boarding schools were run like military camps. Indian children were stringently taught how to follow orders. The children had to fall into formation, march in a straight line, and oftentimes wore military clothing and shoes. During the weekdays, the children attended school educational sessions. They were taught English, math, history, and geography usually by Euro-American teachers. Geography was an eye-opening experience when they learned about the world and stars. When asked to draw pictures of the earth, they drew pictures of dwellings, animals and vegetation (Adams, 1995).  Some of the teachers tried to be kind and helpful, but many were cruel and harsh.

On average, only a few hours a day was spent in the classroom, and the other portion of the day was spent undertaking assigned tasks. The children received minimal care and education. Learning how to accomplish various tasks were thought to help prepare them for adulthood in the white man’s world, because the only viable future was a white future. Girls were prepared to work as servants or to become homemakers. Boys were trained in the areas of gardening, repair and maintenance of homes and farms, the running of farms, printing presses, and the building of houses and furniture.

Children who attended the boarding schools suffered from various types of abuse. Concerning sexual abuse, one woman reported she spent years in therapy until she finally grasped the fact, she had been a victim. The shame and guilt she experienced as a result of the sexual abuse she was forced to endure at the hands of a priest at a missionary boarding school caused her chronic emotional stress into adulthood.

According to one report, nuns at the Holy Childhood Boarding School in Harbor Springs, Michigan would maintain relationships with young boys and these young boys would become confidants for these women. Mentally healthy women in their 30s or 40s do not fall in love with boys who are 10, 11 or 12 years of age.  Pedophiles work in a way that does not permit children to refuse. It is cunning, measured, and done under the pretext of fondness. These children were used as sexual outlets. Once the sexually deviant person tired of the current victim, they dumped them and preyed on other unsuspecting children. Victims often felt abandoned. Children could not escape from their perpetrators. They had no one to turn to and they were held captive because these institutions became their prison (Stanton, 2008).

Another report involved nuns at the same boarding school who began their seduction by kissing the younger boys good night. One of the abusive nuns was in her 20s, rather plain and chubby. The favored boys would get kissed on the lips and she would tickle them.  One of the people who attended the school stated that a few years went by for him until the kisses started getting longer and longer, and then he was taken to her bedroom. The boys were not expected to perform sexual acts until they were approximately 12 years of age.

One day, another nun at another institution pulled a boy off the playground and forced him to perform sexual acts, he and a pedophile nun were caught in a compromising position by other nuns, yet the perpetrator did not receive any retribution (Podles, 2008).  The children were habitually exposed to “institutionalized pedophilia” and “sexual terrorism.” The pedophiles included, but were not limited to, priests, nuns, teaching staff, and Protestant clergy.

 When children first arrived at the school, they felt lonely and isolated and as a result many suffered from homesickness. Most children who attended these institutions were separated from their family before they were developmentally mature. The boarding schools were often one hour or further from the children’s homes. The expense of travel was more than most Indian families could afford, which deterred them from visiting their children. In 1924, the Native American per capita annual income was approximately $81 (Churchhill, 2004).

Prior to the 1920s, boarding school officials would have to seek preapproval from the local reservation superintendent or an Indian agent before permission could be granted for children to go home, even for severe hardship, such as deaths in the family and sick relatives.  Indian parents learned to get around these sanctions by stating their children were needed to assist with farming. Since farming was a part of the assimilation process, it served as a more worthy excuse. When John Collier filled the position as Commissioner of Indian Affairs in 1933, these policies took a turn for the better.  Students were permitted to go home for the summer months and usually for family hardships. 

Indian children developed alliances with each other and looked after one another while attending these institutions. Many of the children had never met Indian people from other tribes. Long-lasting Friendships were often formed, some lasting their lifetimes. They made fun of the teachers and gave them names the students felt best suited their personalities. On occasion, they snuck out at night together and did things they knew were forbidden activities, such as breaking into buildings on and off school property. Sports, choirs, bands, and dances were other ways long lasting friendships were developed and ways in which the children maintained their sanity. Sharing the common experience of attending boarding schools was another way in which life long bonds were established.

When a child was sent to bed without a meal, the other children would often sneak them food. The children experienced what could be referred to as slow, agonizing starvation. School officials were allotted very limited funding, which served as a strong indication of the lack of importance concerning Indian children.

Because many Indian children from various tribal nations attended the boarding schools together, they shared a rich cultural exchange referred to as pan-Indianness. They developed an understanding of other Indian cultures while helping each of their acquired acquaintances with the harshness of the boarding school experience. Ojibwe students met Indian children from various tribes such as the Lakotas, Oneidas and Poncas. The Indian children became more alike, they learned a portion of other Indian languages along with the enforced English language. Students who left the boarding schools after graduation married people from other tribes and summer gatherings on reservations became intertribal events. New political alliances were created and the schools became a part of a joint history (Child, 2000). 

“The Carlisle school developed a “placing out system,” placing Indian students in the mainstream community for summer or a year at a time where they could learn skills other than farming. While monitored carefully at Carlisle, other outing programs were often exploitive. At the Phoenix Indian School, girls became the major source of domestic labor for white families, boys were placed in seasonal harvest or other jobs unwanted by white or immigrant laborers and the students were unsupervised, learning very little from their outing experiences” (American Indian Relief Council, N.D., para. 11). Other boarding schools followed suit and many Indian children became laborers for white people who lived near the schools. 

During the 1920s, the Meriam report revealed the lack of fresh food and milk for boarding school residents in the United States. This report involved an investigation concerning failed U.S. Indian policies in various areas such as education. The average per capita food allowance was 11 cents per day. As a result, students suffered from malnutrition because of the shortage of food. The Meriam report suggested 35 cents per day for each student. This would ensure proper nutrition and adequate food supply. During the time of the Meriam report, the children’s diet mostly consisted of meat and starch. Vegetables and fruit were rarely served. They did not receive milk on a daily basis. The school staff promised the children would receive adequate clothing but oftentimes they sent letters home requesting jackets, hats, shoes and other attire. Good Housekeeping series in 1929, author of the series, Vera L. Connolly, wrote about the past and present injustices concerning Indian people. She defined one of the worse circumstances involved children who were removed from their families and reared in over-crowded, disease ridden boarding schools, places where the government officials overworked and starved the students. Average enrollment in the Indian boarding schools exceeded capacity by approximately 40 percent (Child, 2000).

The recommendations put forth by those who conducted the Meriam study were often ignored. On another note, during the time the Meriam team was observing some of the boarding schools, they made notice of the extreme levels of quietness. Episodes of intermingling and comfortable conversations were non-existent (Churchhill, 2004).

Disease did run rampant in the boarding schools with tuberculosis being one of the most serious. Measles, mumps, influenza, and trachoma, a disease that inflicted the eyes, were other health maladies. Often, the parents were not informed about their children’s illnesses. Children with these diseases and healthy students were kept together at the schools. Overcrowding was another issue. These schools were often filled to capacity and beyond. Due to the lack of medical services and poor diets, the children often died as a result of contracting diseases. Healthy and sick children resided together in the same rooms. Sometimes the children’s loneliness and homesickness became too much for them and they became physically ill. Parents were often not informed when their children were sick. Tribal nations carried out special ceremonies for someone who passed on. These traditional practices were not honored at the boarding schools.

Neglect is another form of oppression in which a person is deprived of love, care, nurturance, support, or other pertinent assistance, as well as basic material needs such as food and shelter. They often experienced failure to thrive. As a result, many Indian people associated these institutions with death and despair. 

The boarding school experience did prepare children to communicate with the English-speaking population. A high percentage of the attendees had a difficult time returning to their home of origin. Their difficulty of fitting in with their families was partially due to the biased instruction they received at the school, as well as the lack of bonding with their families because of their long absences. Much of the native language was lost, along with many of the traditional customs. A multitude of boarding school attendees did not return to the tribal communities.

A vast number of Indian children were released from the boarding schools when they were ready to attend high school. After spending years of following the stringent rules at the schools, they had to try and fit in with their families and the outside world. They were not taught how to think for themselves.

Teenagers have been known to have difficulty making smart choices. During the late teens, the brain begins to develop its prefrontal cortex and inferior cortex, the areas that supervise judgment and self-control. This process is not completed until the mid-twenties. As a result, teenagers and young adults have been subject to making bad judgments, lack inhibitory control, and experience a likelihood of developing addictive behaviors. These susceptibilities can be lessened if they receive caring support. 

Many of the teenagers who left these institutions were not welcomed by their families. The years of separation and the vast differences these attendees had with their families caused them to feel alienated and the needed support and guidance was nonexistent. A large number of Native American people continue to live with regrets that resulted from making poor choices when they were teenagers and young adults because of their boarding school experience. Many Indian people married individuals who mirrored the caregivers at these institutions and ended up in loveless relationships and/or divorce. Again, the negative impact of these harsh environments resonates throughout tribal communities today (Child, 2000). 

            The boarding schools served as a harsh reminder of white supremacy and how the Native Americans were viewed by the Euro-Americans. These institutions proved to be one of the most harmful bureaucratic actions taken against the indigenous. The children were trained to be to be replicas of the white race and they received minimal care and education while attending the schools. They suffered from malnutrition, neglect, severe physical, emotional, sexual abuse and cultural abuse. As a result, Native Americans continue to suffer from higher rates of alcoholism, domestic violence, disease, suicide, poverty and many other societal ills than the rest of the population. Memories of the boarding school experience for many of the residents remained strong and carry complex emotions. The U.S. government has never apologized for the hardships entrenched by the boarding school legislation and the legacy of genocide of the boarding school institutions still exists.