Battered Woman Syndrome

*        Stages

·         How it develops

·         Signs

·         Side effects

·         Treatment

·         How to get help

·         The law

·         Outlook

Overview

Battered woman syndrome, also known as battered person syndrome, can be the product of long-term domestic abuse. Battered woman syndrome is considered a subcategory of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

People living with battered woman syndrome may feel helpless. This can cause them to wrongly believe they deserve the abuse and that they can’t get away from it. In many cases, this is why people don’t report their abuse to police or loved ones.

If you believe you or someone close to you is living with battered woman syndrome, know that it’s possible to treat this condition and lead a full life. Read on to learn more about the signs and symptoms of battered woman syndrome, as well as how it’s treated.

The stages of battered woman syndrome

Because of the unique circumstances that different people can find themselves in, battered woman syndrome may not look the same in everyone who lives with it.

That being said, there are generally thought to be four stages of battered woman syndrome:

1. Denial. The person is unable to accept that they’re being abused, or they justify it as being “just that once.”
2. Guilt. The person believes they caused the abuse.
3. Enlightenment. In this phase, the person realizes that they didn’t deserve the abuse and acknowledges that their partner has an abusive personality.
4. Responsibility. The person accepts that only the abuser holds responsibility for the abuse. In many cases, this is when they’ll explore their options for leaving the relationship.

How battered woman syndrome develops

Battered woman syndrome is caused by domestic abuse. While it’s something that can happen between intimate partners, the term “domestic abuse” is an umbrella term that can include things like child and elder abuse, too.

Domestic abuse between intimate partners typically follows a certain cycle:

• The abuser will win over a new partner, often moving quickly into a relationship with tactics like “love bombing,” grand romantic gestures, and pressuring for commitment early.
• The abuser will be emotionally or physically abusive. This often starts small, like a slap instead of a punch or punching the wall next to their partner.
• The abuser will feel guilty, swearing they’ll never do it again, and be overtly romantic to win their partner over.
• There will be a temporary “honeymoon” period, where the abuser is on their best behavior, luring their partner into thinking that they’re safe and things really will be different.
• Abuse occurs, starting the cycle all over again.

People become trapped in abusive relationships for many reasons, which can include:

• financial dependence on the abuser, which the abuser often manufactures
• wanting to have a complete family unit for their children’s sake
• being afraid to leave
• disbelief or denial that the partner is actually abusive
• severe depression or low self-esteem that makes them think the abuse is their fault
• believing that if the abuser loves them, it’s OK, and they can change the behavior

As a person becomes trapped in the cycle of abuse, battered woman syndrome can develop. This syndrome makes it difficult for people to regain control of their lives.

The signs of battered woman syndrome

Battered woman syndrome results in several distinct symptoms. A person in an abusive relationship may:

• think the abuse is their fault
• hide the abuse from friends and family
• fear for their life or the lives of their children
• believe that the abuser is all-knowing and can see their every movement
• be afraid and never know what side of their partner they’ll see that day — a loving partner or an abuser

Warning signs

If you’re concerned about a family member or friend, watch for several important symptoms that could signal that they’re in an abusive relationship and need help. These include:

• withdrawing and making excuses not to see friends or family or do activities they once did (this can be something the abuser is controlling)
• seeming anxious around their partner or afraid of their partner
• having frequent bruises or injuries they lie about or can’t explain
• having limited access to money, credit cards, or transportation
• showing an extreme difference in personality
• getting frequent calls from a significant other, especially calls that require them to check in or make them seem anxious
• having a partner who has a temper, becomes jealous easily, or is very possessive
• wearing clothing that could be hiding bruises, like long-sleeve shirts in the summer

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Side effects of battered woman syndrome

Several serious side effects are associated with battered woman syndrome.

Short term

Short-term side effects that may be seen immediately include:

• depression
• lowered self-esteem
• damaged relationships with friends and family
• severe anxiety
• feeling worthless or hopeless
• feeling like they have no control

Long term

Research has shown that battered woman syndrome and domestic abuse can result in long-term health consequences that can last for decades. Long-term effects can include:

• PTSD-like symptoms, including flashbacks, dissociative states, and violent outbursts against the abuser
• health issues caused by stress, such as high blood pressure and associated cardiac problems
• health issues from the physical abuse, such as damaged joints or arthritis
• chronic back pain or headaches
• increased risk of developing diabetes, asthma, depression, and immune dysfunction due to long-term stress

Treatment for battered woman syndrome

The first step in treating battered woman syndrome is to get the person to a safe place away from their abuser.

If you or someone you care about is living with battered woman syndrome, you can form a safety plan and a getaway plan without the abuser. It’s also good to have a doctor examine any injuries that may have been sustained in the abuse.

A therapist with experience in PTSD or domestic abuse should be consulted. The therapist needs to validate the victim when they detail their abuse.

The therapist should help them to understand that none of this was their fault and should also help empower them.

Treatment strategies

Anxiety and depression can result from battered woman syndrome. Treatment plans for these conditions may include a combination of anti-anxiety medications, antidepressant medications, and talk therapy to help the person regain control of their life.

In some cases, the therapist may recommend interpersonal therapy, where they help the person establish stronger relationships with their support system. These supportive relationships may have been damaged due to isolation caused by the abuse.

In the 1970s, “battered woman syndrome” began being used as a legal defense to explain the mental state of women who kill their abusers. Coined by psychologist Lenore Walker, she proposed the term to describe the psychological condition of women who endured repeated traumas at the hands of an intimate partner, including the coping or survival skills a victim would develop over time to live with abuse. 

The defense was famously used in the Lorena Bobbitt trial in the early ‘90s after Bobbitt castrated her abusive husband. Bobbitt was acquitted. In 2011, Barbara Sheehan killed her husband, claiming he severely abused her throughout their marriage. She, too, was acquitted after a battered-woman defense was used. 

While it can be used in a victim’s favor, advocates and experts would also attest that battered woman syndrome comes with its pitfalls, as assigning victims a syndrome means that they can be pathologized, taking the focus off of the abuser and their choice to abuse, and putting a spotlight instead on a victim that supposedly just needs psychological treatment. 

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You’re Not Crazy, You’re Traumatized

Currently, battered woman syndrome is listed as a subcategory under post-traumatic stress disorder in the DSM-V, the American Psychiatric Association’s manual for diagnosing mental disorders, a more gender-neutral, non-blaming term that many advocates say they prefer. While battered woman syndrome may still be diagnosed, it’s more often than not called PTSD.

The symptoms of PTSD can include:

• Intrusive memories of the abuse
• Loss of interest in other people and the outside world
• Insomnia
• Agitation
• Outbursts of anger
• Panic attacks
• Depression
• Overwhelming feelings of sadness, fear, despair, guilt or self-hatred
• Physical pain that migrates throughout the body
• An inability to imagine a positive future

Victims Are Not Helpless

Walker had originally proposed victims of abuse developed a “learned helplessness” to an abuser—being abused over an extended period of time stripped them of the will to live and, in turn, prevented them from getting away from an abuser. Yet, we also know this isn’t true. Victims try to leave abusers all the time—many statistics will cite victims try to leave seven times, on average, before staying away for good, though this is hard to prove unequivocally. 

A survey on DomesticShelters.org showed survivors weren’t able to leave abusers most often because of threats from the abuser, followed up by fear of retaliation or risk of losing custody of children. To leave an abuser safely, consider creating a safety plan with a trained domestic violence advocate near you. And be prepared for anything: Read “When an Abuser Tries to Block Your Separation” for more information. 

Battered woman syndrome theorized that victims of abuse were not mentally sound enough to make rational decisions, including leaving an abuser before violence escalated. But we know now that victims don’t stay with an abusive partner because they have a mental disorder. If they’re unable to leave, there are myriad barriers that may be standing in their way, as stated above. And there are at least 50 such barriers, according to law professor, advocate and survivor Sarah Buel. Among them:

• Fear of retaliation by the abuser
• Lack of financial resources or employment
• Absence of support system or advocate that can help them leave safely 
• Fear of losing custody of children
• Isolation from shelters, family or friends
• Disability, undocumented status or other dependence on abuser
• The abuser is in law enforcement
• Promises of change or continued hope for the abuse to end
• Religious beliefs that prevent separation or divorce
• Family pressure to stay
• Shame or embarrassment
• Trauma-bonding

More Accountable Language Needed

Describing any victim, woman or man, who has survived an abuser as having “battered woman syndrome” can minimize their experiences, reducing an abuser’s choice to abuse to a list of psychological symptoms. Advocates argue for more accountable language to be used.

Sue Osthoff, director and cofounder of the National Clearinghouse for Defense of Battered Women says they prefer to use “battering and its effects” when discussing the trauma of abuse, “since the consequences [of being abused] are way more than psychological,” she says.

 

 

The First Thanksgiving

 

Native Americans and early settlers gave thanks together with this historic feast. On the fourth Thursday of November, people in the United States celebrate Thanksgiving, a national holiday honoring the early settlers and Native Americans who came together to have a historic harvest feast.

NATIVE AMERICANS

Long before settlers came to the East Coast of the United States, the area was inhabited by many Native American tribes. The area surrounding the site of the first Thanksgiving, now known as southeastern Massachusetts and eastern Rhode Island, had been the home of the Wampanoag people for over 12,000 years, and had been visited by other European settlers before the arrival of the Mayflower in 1620. The native people knew the land well and had fished, hunted, and harvested for thousands of generations.

THE SETTLERS

The people who comprised the Plymouth Colony were a group of English Protestants called Puritans who wanted to break away from the Church of England. These "separatists" initially moved to Holland. But after 12 years of financial problems, they received funding from English merchants to sail across the Atlantic Ocean in 1620 to settle in a "New World." Carrying 101 men, women, and children, the Mayflower traveled the ocean for 66 days and was supposed to land where New York City is now located. But windy conditions forced the group to cut their trip short and settle at what is now Cape Cod, Massachusetts.

SETTLING AND EXPLORING

As the Puritans prepared for winter, they gathered anything they could find, including Wampanoag supplies.

One day, Samoset, a leader of the Abenaki people, and Tisquantum (better known as Squanto) visited the settlers. Squanto was a Wampanoag who had experience with other settlers and knew English. Squanto helped the settlers grow corn and use fish to fertilize their fields. After several meetings, a formal agreement was made between the settlers and the native people, and in March 1621, they joined together to protect each other from other tribes.

THE CELEBRATION

One day that fall, four settlers were sent to hunt for food for a harvest celebration. The Wampanoag heard gunshots and alerted their leader, Massasoit, who thought the English might be preparing for war. Massasoit visited the English settlement with 90 of his men to see if the war rumor was true.

Soon after their visit, the Native Americans realized that the English were only hunting for the harvest celebration. Massasoit sent some of his own men to hunt deer for the feast and for three days, the English and native men, women, and children ate together. The meal consisted of deer, corn, shellfish, and roasted meat, different from today's traditional Thanksgiving feast. They played ball games, sang, and danced.

Although prayers and thanks were probably offered at the 1621 harvest gathering, the first recorded religious Thanksgiving Day in Plymouth happened two years later in 1623. On this occasion, the colonists gave thanks to God for rain after a two-month drought.

THE MYTHS

Puritans are often thought of having silver buckles on their shoes and wearing somber, black clothing. Their attire was actually bright and cheerful (with no shoe buckles!). The Native Americans actualy didn't wear woven blankets on their shoulders and large, feathered headdresses, even though some artworks portray this. And though today we might refer to the Puritans as "Pilgrims," the Englishmen didn’t call themselves that.

NATIVE AMERICANS AND THANKSGIVING

The peace between the Native Americans and settlers lasted for only a generation. The Wampanoag people do not share in the popular reverence for the traditional New England Thanksgiving. For them, the holiday is a reminder of betrayal and bloodshed. Since 1970, many native people have gathered at the statue of Massasoit in Plymouth, Massachusetts, each Thanksgiving Day to remember their ancestors and the strength of the Wampanoag.

MODERN THANKSGIVING

In the 19th century, the modern Thanksgiving holiday started to take shape. In 1846, Sarah Josepha Hale, editor of a magazine called Godey’s Lady’s Book, campaigned for an annual national thanksgiving holiday. But it wasn't until 1863, when President Abraham Lincoln declared two national Thanksgivings; one in August to commemorate the Battle of Gettysburg during the Civil War, and the other in November to give thanks for "general blessings." It's the second one that we celebrate today.

Source:  First Thanksgiving (nationalgeographic.com)

Three Fires

 

“All things are connected. Whatever befalls the

earth befalls the children of the earth.”

-Chief Seattle

Suqwamish and Duwamish

 

Originally the Anishanaabeg in Michigan were a collection of closely related tribes: Ojibwe, Odawa and Potawatomi. Their alliances were established when they reached the area of Michlimackinac on their journey westward from the northeastern Atlantic coast. The Midewiwin scrolls revealed that the formation of the Council of Three Fires was dated back to 796 AD at Michilimackinac. The Ojibwe were addressed as the Older Brother, the Odawa as the Middle Brother, and the Potawatomi as the Younger Brother. The Ojibwa were referred to as the keepers of the faith, the Odawa were the keepers of trade, and the Potawatomi were the designated keepers of the fire. Their alliances were established when they reached the area of Michlimackinac which is currently referred to as Mackinac City, Michigan, on their journey westward from the northeastern Atlantic coast (Clifton, Cornell and McClurken, 1986).

            The Three Fires Council had several meeting places. Michilimackinac became the preferred meeting place due to its central location. The Council met for military and politi-cal purposes. The totem system was based on the clan struc-ture and promotion of trade.

            During the 1750s, France expanded its territorial claims into the Ohio River Valley, which further instilled animosity between France and Britain. In 1754 and 1755 the French defeated the young George Washington, General Edward Braddock, and Braddock’s successor, Governor William Shirley of Massachusetts. The British military efforts were thwarted by a lack of interest at the home front, opposition among the American colonies, and France’s success with gaining more support from Indian allies. In 1756 the British formally declared war against the French beginning the Seven Years’ War or better known as the French and Indian War because of the French and British rivalry over territory and pelts.  The new British commander in America, Lord Loudoun, was confronted with the same issues as his predecessors. He met with the same defeat against the French and their Indian allies. 

            Circumstances changed drastically in 1757 due to William Pitt’s vision, his vision of expanding the British Empire. Pitt served as the Secretary of State of Foreign Affairs for Britain during the time of the French and Indian War. The colonial conflicts provided the tools to accomplish this goal. To fund this venture Pitt borrowed heavily and offered reimbursement to the colonies to acquire troops in North America. He also paid Prussia to fight in Europe for the British. In 1758, the British won their first great triumph at Louisbourg near the mouth of the St. Lawrence River.

            The British conquered the French at Fort Frontenac at the western end of the St. Lawrence River. The French lost command over the Plains of Abraham in 1759 which resulted in the fall of Montreal in 1760. The French lost their foothold in Canada. Spain joined France against England. Britain increased its efforts to seize more of the French and Spanish territories in other parts of the world (Clifton, Cornell and McClurken, 1986).

            In March of 1762 the King of France, King Louis XV, ordered a formal request for peace talks with the British government. The British government was also interested in stopping the war. The war was extremely expensive and was financed by accumulated debt. The creditors financing the British military efforts were wondering if Britain could pay off its loans. What added to British decision to end the war was George II’s death. His successor, George III, was also interested in ending the war. The peace talks between France and Britain resulted in the Treaty of Paris in 1763. In the terms of the treaty, France turned over all its territories in mainland North America which ended the military threats to the British colonies.

            Dissention continued to occur between the Anglo-American colonists and the British Government because of conflicting interests. The British were tired of providing a military presence to manage the post-treaty policies which were supposed to address the interests of the Indian people and the colonists. An argument transpired about the levying of taxes to pay for debts concerning wartime expenses. The Treaty of Paris resulted in the colonists moving towards independence even under the tyranny of a stalwart British Empire (Conlan, 1994).

            Eagle and Coyote were assigned a mission by the Creator that involved joining an Ojibwe tribe which was a part of the Three Fires Council during the time of the French and Indian War. The French soldiers met with the Three Fires Council to enlist their assistance in the war effort against the Iroquois and British. The Three Fires Council decided to join the French as their allies.

            They shape shifted into elder leaders of an Ojibwe tribe. Coyote created an image of a strong older man named Gray Wolf. Eagle transposed herself into an elder woman referred to as White Wolf. Both were placed in charge of holding the council meetings because they are respected elders and spiritual leaders for the Ojibwe tribe. The location is currently called Mackinac Island, Michigan.

            The Three Fires Council decided to serve as an ally to the French during the war. A long-standing hostile his-tory existed between the Three Fires and the Iroquois. The Iroquois served as allies to the British which automatically created a strong alliance between the Anishanaabeg and the French.  

The Early Fur Trading Years

 

“What do we know of the manner of the laws

and customs of the white people?”

-Black Hawk

Sauk

 

The history of wilderness travel represented a most enthrall-ling chapter in American history. From 1634 to 1850 the Michigan fur trade was a prominent business and control of such trade started when the French and the British decided to take part in the profitable business venture. Many battles were fought between various Indian tribes, between the British and the French, between the French and Indian tribes against the British and other Indian tribes, over the fur trading business. Everybody wanted a piece of the lucrative market.

 Commercial fur trade began with early contact between the indigenous population and the European fishermen. While the fishermen netted cod in Newfoundland and Quebec, Native Americans traded mink and other small animal pelts for knives, other iron products and cloth with the fishermen. The trade, haphazard at best, continued until around the middle to late sixteenth century when the wearing of beaver hats became the new fashion trend for Europeans in Europe. The earliest French explorer to work with Native Americans regarding fur trading was Jacques Cartier in the 1530s. He traveled the St. Lawrence River and Gulf of St. Lawrence areas. During the 1580s, French trading companies were set up in the region of what was later referred to as New France. The demand for beaver furs led to extensive trapping of the furry animals by Native Americans during the harshness of northern winters when the fur was the thickest. From 1634 to 1850 the fur trade was a prominent business and control of such trade started with the French, British and Scotts. Many battles were fought over the fur-trading business, especially when the animals sought became vastly depleted in specific locations (Conlan, 1994).

Moving from a bartering system to a market economy was difficult for the Native American people. Many were confused about this concept. Bartering was something they practiced and was a form of transaction in which goods or services were exchanged for other goods or services without mediums of exchange such as money. Native Americans believed in the concept of reciprocity.

 The Indian people demanded to trade for items such as guns and unfortunately rum and brandy. Liquor became one of the main trade items used to numb the pain. The European invasion caused a lot of stress ad anguish for the Native Americans. Many of the fur traders were of a rough sort, drank plenty and defied the laws of a civil society. Others delved into the wilderness to barter with the Indian people, adopt their ways and marry Native American women. Many Europeans wanted a piece of the lucrative market while fur trading ended up being the only source of income for the Native Americans.

They did not at first perceive trade as posing any danger to their independence and means of self-sufficiency. However, they became reliant on trade with the Europeans. The fur trade industry was also dependent on the labor provided by the Indian people. Before the introduction of the fur trade, the Indian people used approximately 30 beavers a year for food and robes. A vast amount of time was spent hunting, and preparing pelts to be traded. The fur trade led to further exploration of the Great Lakes region which enhanced animosity between France and Britain (Johnston, 1971). 

French frontiersmen were referred to as coureurs de bois or forest runners. Another name given to these brave men was voyageurs who were referred to as canoeists or travelers. The reduction of the beaver population forced the coureurs de bois to go further into the interior of Canada. These canoeists wore brightly woven sashes, deer-skin leggings, and moccasins. On colder days they wore a capote or blanket coat. They were readily recognizable and stood apart from other men. Voyageurs and coureurs de bois were short and wiry, on average five-foot-six in height.  Despite their smaller stature, they were amazingly strong and had inexhaustible stamina. Trading partnerships with the native peoples expanded and it became possible to stay through the winter. Owners of the fur trade companies and their employees who lived in the interior of Canada all year became known as “winterers.”

These rugged individuals had to withstand the elements of harsh weather, and life-threatening obstacles such as hostile Indians, competing fur-traders, starvation and wild animals. Sometimes they had to portage their canoes, supplies, and packs of fur. They were expected to carry a pack of furs that weighed up to 90 pounds sometimes for great distances. Their daily routines consisted of paddling, hauling, and portaging for approximately 16 hours and then they would collapse from exhaustion. At night they slept by some small or large body of water with a gun by their side. Their coverings would be a blanket and perhaps some brush to add cushion to the hard surface of the ground. Samuel de Champlain relied on these durable men to help him with his fur trading business ventures (Johnston, 1971).    

Indigenous warriors watched as Champlain and eight other men docked on Sunday, July 3, 1608 in Canada. They survived the first winter and a treaty between the North American Indians and French provide unity. Champlain and his comrades joined forces to defeat Iroquois intruders in a battle near Lake Champlain. A repeat victory in 1610 sealed the relationship with allied tribes. The fur trade between the French and Indians increased considerably. The fur trade took a turn for the worse in 1611. France’s sponsorship of New France colony ceased. Champlain did not give up. He persuaded Louis XIII to become involved and as a result the king made Champlain the commandant of New France.

Champlain embarked to the Ottawa River to restore the fur trade and then he traveled to Lake Huron where the Indian chiefs convinced him to lead a war party against a village south of Lake Ontario. He ended up suffering from serious wounds and spent the winter at the Huron-Algonquin warriors’ encampment. Champlain’s authority over New France was reaffirmed in 1620, but the king did not want him to conduct further exploration. He was to stay put and handle administrative tasks (Ritchie, N.D.). 

            Money was to be made in the fur trade. Adult beavers averaged about 50 pounds, were plentiful (about 60 million) and somewhat easy to catch. The fabric produced by the beaver pelts provided warmth and beauty and was in great demand by European men and women of the upper classes. Fur coats, muffs, wraps, gloves, fur-trimmed garments and beaver hats (most prominent item) served the fashion sense of the time. Europeans wanted beaver hats and such while tribal people wanted iron pots and tools. These demands fostered the fur trade.

            The fur trade between Native Americans and Euro-peans thrived, especially concerning beaver. Beaver fur served as the most important animal fur in Canadian history because it consisted of long barbs at the tip of each strand of fur in the soft underside which made it ideal for felt. The making of felt transferred the animal fur into a soft, pliable, water-resistant material which was sought after to wear in cold and wet weather by the well to do Europeans (Wilson, 2013).           

            Battles between many of the Northern Indians and Iroquois continued. The weapons of the Indians consisted of clubs, stone axes and bows and arrows before the arrival of the European. Tomahawks came later after contact with the Europeans. Some of the warriors wore wicker and slat armor covered rawhide to protect themselves from bone and stone pointed arrows which did not work well to shield from bullets and balls from muzzle-loading guns.

           Neither the European or Native American sides had efficient military strategies and organization. Uncooperating warriors and soldiers fled from conflict whenever they felt compelled to leave battles. No penalty transpired as a result of their insolence. They only lost some public prestige. Defense of their encampments was considered loose to non-existent. Close contests may have continued indefinitely if the Iroquois had not received more firearms and ammunition from the British and Dutch than the Hurons received from the French fur traders near the lower St. Lawrence River.

            If the two parties (Europeans and Native Americans) wanted furs, they discovered they had to fight. The Iroquois did not have kind regard for any white people including the British but decided to pick sides with the British when the French and English fought, as they frequently did (Wilson, 2013).                “The main cause of the rising beaver pelt prices in England and France was the increasing demand for hats made from beaver pelts, which included hats made ex-clusively with beaver wool and referred to as ‘beaver hat,’ and those hats containing a combination of beaver and a lower cost wool, such as rabbit. These were called the ‘felt hat.’ Unfortunately, aggregate consumption series for the eighteenth century for Europe are not available. We do, however, have Gregory King’s contemporary work for England which provides a good starting point… King calculated that consumption of all types of hats was 3.3 million, or nearly one hat per person. King also included a second category, caps of all sorts, for which he estimated consumption at 1.6 million” (Harte, 1991, pg. 293). The potential market as early as 1700 for England alone was nearly 5 million per year which was dependent on population growth (Carlos and Lewis, 2008).

To get an idea of how much beaver pelts were worth at the trading posts, in 1784 the Hudson Bay Company (HBC) prepared a “Table of Equivalents” which listed the number of beavers required to trade for various items. Throughout history prices have gone up, not down, for items purchased in stores. It would be safe to note that it would have taken many more beavers to get the same wares during the early 1800s. In 1784, the following table was used to place a value on specific items, a concept that was foreign to the Indian people.

 

·         1 Beaver = 9 Arrow Heads

·         1 Beaver = 1 yard of cloth

·         4 Beavers = 1 gallon of brandy

·         11 Beavers = 1 gun

·         1 Beaver = ¾ pounds of beads

(Brazer, 1993)

 

            Traders waited for the Indian trappers and their middlemen to bring them furs which were exchanged for goods. The furs were then transferred to Europe. The middle men, who collected the furs from the Native Americans and brought them to the European traders, were linked to the spread of deadly diseases because of their connection to the European settlers. Europeans introduced an advanced spread of diseases such as smallpox and tuberculosis. Native Americans did not immunity to the various diseases. Disease, the politics of starvation (overhunting of game and other attempts), and the loss of traditional Native American cultures led to the demise of almost entirely to entirely decimated communities. For example, in Saskatchewan disease annihilated the people of Basquia and Pegogamaw Cree. Elders, who held important positions of carrying on the traditional knowledge were especially susceptible to diseases (Daschuk, 2013). 

During the middle of June in 1671 a Pageant was held in Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan by French dignitaries. Simon Francois Daumont, Sieur de St. Lusson, coordinated the expedition to the Jesuit mission. Nicolas Perrot from Wisconsin and Louis Jolliet served instrumentally in the undertaking of the event. Northern tribes of the upper Great Lakes attended: Menominee, Potawotami, and Sauk Indians. Sieur de Lusson declared the annexation of the region and all lands not discovered in the name of the “Most High, Most Mighty and Most Redoubtable Monarch Louis the XIV of the Name, Most Christian King of France and Navarre” (Kellogg, 1917, para. 3). The French King and his contemporaries felt urged to come forward and claim the vast continent in the name of France after hearing about the British efforts concerning the fur trading business. Annexation papers were completed and signed by all the white men in attendance. (Kellogg, 1917).              

            John Jacob Astor established the American Fur Company in 1808 and sought to achieve dominance over the Fur trade of the northern United States. He saw the competition grow between the Canadian monopolies. The aforementioned companies encouraged traders from the St. Lawrence River to expand their business to encompass their territory below the Canadian border.

            During Lewis and Clark exploration between 1805 and 1806, they discovered a portage from the upper Missouri to the waters of the Columbia. Lewis informed President Jefferson about the upper Missouri area which “is richer in Beaver and otter than any other country on earth” (Lavender 1966, para. 4).  Jefferson commended Astor concerning his business plans but Astor felt he would not receive federal support. National sovereignty had not been achieved for Oregon. Astor worried about the murderous competition of the North West Company when he witnessed their ruthlessness beyond the Rockies against other fur com-panies.

            The Napoleonic Wars reduced the price of deer, muskrat, and raccoon pelts while the cost of shipping necessary trade items rose substantially. The American government tried to undermine the friendship between the British fur traders with the Indians. Canadian traders supplied more alcohol to the Native Americans to increase the amount of fur skins obtained from them which included furs promised to other winterers. At the same time, Tecumseh’s confederation kept many Native American hunters from their hunting grounds. Many circumstances were getting in the way of Astor accomplishing his goal of starting a successful fur company (Lavender, 1966).

            In 1810 Astor established the Pacific Fur Company as a secondary company to profit from the fur trade with China. The Astoria post, located at the mouth of the Columbia River in the Oregon Territory, was vanquished during the war of 1812 which ended the Pacific Northwest company (The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica, 2020.). Astor, forced to sell the fur company to the British, established the Southwest Fur Company which joined business ventures with his American Fur Company. The Southwest Fur Company, American Fur Company and the Michilimackinac Company (a north Michigan company) served as partners and joint stockholders.

            Astor attempted to buy into the Missouri Fur Company of Manuel Lisa. The war interfered with the transaction but this worked to Astor’s advantage. By 1817, Astor bought out his partners and mastered control of the Mississippi Valley posts. The Southwest Fur Company served as the Northern Department of the American Fur Company. The American Fur Company took over the Rocky Mountain Fur Company. The introduction of the steamboats significantly increased the trade traffic. Astor managed to reach conglomerate status with the fur trade in the United States which included Michigan. 

A distinctive characteristic of fur trading companies was their demonstration of lawlessness, a lack of moral codes which included arrogance that led to ignoring regulations because they were considered inconvenient. Company administrative managers did not know about the misconduct of their traders and winterers. They did not pay attention to prohibitions against trapping on Indian lands. The employment of foreign boatmen, permitted by law, gave Astor and Stone (another fur trading company owner) a loophole in employing foreign winterers and on their financial records they were referred to as boatmen. Another infraction involved liquor. More furs were obtained from the Indian men by the use of liquor.

The company management did not authorize the use of liquor but again the administration, quite unaware of the misconduct, did not catch the infractions. However, their employees, ordered to use sharp trading techniques to obtain the product and profits, utilized whatever methods that would give them the highest return. Native Americans paid dearly as a result of their business practices.

            The days of the booming fur trade were coming to an end. Astor sold the American Fur Company at a time when he made profits and dividends of over $1 million. He was the first millionaire in the United States. Crooks and his associates centered the company’s operations to the area of Detroit, the Ohio River, and the Red River of the North. They operated vessels on the Great Lakes and fisheries were established. The American Fur Trading Company failed in 1842 and was completely dissolved in 1845 (Berry, 1961). They also tapped into the indigenous fish supply.                 

The fur-trading business ended up being catastrophic for the Indian people. Not only was the beaver population depleted, the population of the native people was decreased considerably by the ravages of traders’ diseases to which they had no immunity. Smallpox was the number one killer, with measles, scarlet fever, diphtheria, typhus, whooping cough, and influenza following suit. The introduction of alcohol as a bargaining tool was devastating to the tribal communities. To make matters and even more confusing, European men married Indian women, which created a large number of “mixed-bloods” or “half-breeds.” These individuals did not belong fully in any distinct camp, European or Native American. Also, the fur trade created an upheaval of tribal communities as they fought one another and joined forces with European allies to gain control of land bases and its resources (Johnson, 1971).  They became de-pendent on fur trading to support their communities. Fur trading greatly altered the lives of the Native Americans as a result of the onslaught of a multitude of Europeans invading their land to satisfy the whims of the Europeans.

The stories of the Native American people, who turned their lives over to enterprises such as the American Fur Company were filled with financial loss and other hardships. Governmental officials joined in the effort of eradicating the “Indian Problem.” To appease the Ameri-cans, Jefferson decided to set up the Indian people to turn over their land holdings by using a market economy. More and more white settlers were moving to this country and used more of the land’s rich resources. Trading posts were put up in various locations which enticed the Indian people to get their needs met and at the same time accumulate debt of which they had no means of paying back. They ended up giving up large portions of the land they lived on. The Native Americans faced the likelihood of starving if they did not depend on the trading posts for food because they were either depressed, saddled with alcoholism and/or the wild game they relied on for food was over hunted by the white settlers. They were in a dire situation due to the onslaught of Anglo-invaders (Ambrose, 1996).              

            The stage is set for this chapter in a community currently referred to as Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan nestled in the eastern northern part of the state. The Sault is one of the oldest cities in the United States and it is the oldest city in Michigan. Over 2,000 years ago, Native Americans began to gather at this location due to its abundance of fish and fur bearing animals found along the rushing waters of the river which is linked to the Great Lakes of Superior and Huron. They called the area “Bahweting,” or “the place by the rapids.”

            Bahweting served as a meeting place because of the availability of food. The first full-time residents lived in lodges framed of wood poles, covered with bark or animal hides. In the 1600’s, more and more French missionaries and fur traders began to venture into this beautiful part of the country. The traders began calling the area Sault du Gastogne. In 1668, the legendary Jesuit missionary and explorer Fr. Jacques Marquette renamed this settlement Sault Ste. Marie, in honor of the Virgin Mary as the first city in the Great Lakes region.

            Eagle and Coyote explore life at the settlement of Bawating during the winter of 1659-1660. They infiltrate the settlement as Ojibwe people. Eagle shape shifted into a young maiden named Red Bird and Coyote shape shifted into a young man named Running Bear. They work with the French fur traders to help them get through the winter. Medard Chouart, and Sieur de Groseilliers (French explorers and fur traders) spent the entire winter at the Bahwating settlement. This is the first time they visited the area. They stay with the native population, the Ojibwe Indians. They learn about the camaraderie of the Indian people as they survive the harsh conditions in Upper Michigan.

 

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Slaughter on the Plains

 

“A cold wind blew across the prairie when the last buffalo fell – death-wind for my people.”

--Sitting Bull

 

The post-Civil War western army’s conspiracy regarding the “Indian Problem” encompassed the extermination of the buffalo. Which involved the belief if the Indians’ sustenance was taken away, they would be forced onto reservations and reduced to relying on the government to care for them. Their independence served as a threat to further colonization, the Euro-Americans’ right to “Manifest Destiny.” The army made an attempt at killing the buffalo, but the numbers exceeded their capabilities. The military enlisted wealthy men to hunt the buffalo for sport. The army hunted the buffalo to feed the troops. Buffalo hides became a commodity to be used for the industrialized market which ended up with the recruitment of hide hunters to do the dirty work of eliminating the buffalo. Various tribes raised up in anger and fought the military and white buffalo hunters. Eventually, the buffalo were almost completely erased from the vast open prairies.

            Brigadier General S. L. A. Marshall claimed Generals William T. Sherman and Phillip Sheridan rallied for the elimination of the buffalo as a way of gaining control over the Plains Indians. The aforementioned served a key role in the slaughter of the buffalo. Other military officers and soldiers went against their plan and worked to end the slaughter (Smits, 1994).

            Sherman succeeded Grant as commanding general in 1869, a role he maintained until he retired in 1883. Sherman learned from fighting in the Civil War that the best way to defeat the enemy was to destroy their ability to provide for their people. His long march of slashing and burning from Atlanta to the ocean served the final blow and won the Civil War. He acclaimed that “must make old and young, rich and poor, feel the hard hand of war” (Smits, 1994, page 314). He also believed that railroads served the military immensely by moving troops, ammunition, and supplies. According to Sherman, to service the Union Pacific and Kansas Pacific Railroads the military must exterminate the buffalo. General Sherman acclaimed “as long as Buffalo are up on the Republican the Indians will go there. I think it would be wise to invite all the sportsmen of England and America there this fall for a grand Buffalo hunt, and make one grand sweep of them all. Until the Buffalo and consequently Indians are out from between the roads we will have collisions and trouble” (Smits, 1994, page 314). Serious attempts of carrying out Sherman’s proposal were carried out by the military.

            Sherman and Sheridan sent letters of introduction to American citizens and foreigners regarding possible hunts. They were promised supplies, equipment, military escorts and knowledgeable scouts and other forms of assistance. The military leaders looked forward to  rubbing elbows with the prominent and rich. A group of wealthy businessmen visited Fort McPherson in 1871 to join a hunting party as Sheridan’s guests. Two companies of the Fifth Cavalry provided them with escorts. Any guest who wished were permitted to use army guns. The party killed over 600 buffalo, they saved the tongues (known delicacy) and choice cuts and left the rest to rot on the plains. Many other groups of wealthy men participated in additional hunts and slaughtered many buffalo.

            Congress did not want the military, ten full regiments, to focus to the extermination of the buffalo. The soldiers slaughtered buffalo whenever and wherever it was practical. Military officials wanted the Indians to become civilized and Christianized. The military believed the Indian people respected martial power. Sherman said “if he [the Plains Indian] does not now give up his cruel and destructive habits, I see no other way to save the lives and property of our people, than to punish him until peace becomes a desirable object” (Smits, 1994, page 317). The military believed the buffalo and the Plains Indians were inseparable.

            Buffalo were used for shooting practice. The hunts broke the soldiers’ boredom, provided them with practice with aiming and shooting and they fine tuned their scouting abilities. Military officials granted hunting passes to hunt buffalo to supplement the government rations. Many Native Americans and white people considered the buffalo tongue a delicacy and many craved them. Each buffalo weighed approximately 2000 pounds, which could provide a lot of meat for the soldiers.

            The Plains Indians used every part of the buffalo they killed. The meat from the buffalo provided them with sustenance. Tanned hides with fur removed served many purposes: cradles; men and women’s leg coverings; tipi covers; mocassins; saddle blankets; gun carriers; pouches; different types of bags; and for burial coverings. Rawhide had various uses from drumskins, ropes, to saddles. Horns served useful purposes such as for cups, spoons, ladles, arrow points, and bowls. The bones were used as knives, axes, arrowheads and scrapers. The Plains Indians utilized sinew as thread for clothing, mocassins, and bindings (Goble, 1996). The waste of the white people angered them when they left many buffalo to rot on the plains.

            At Fort Cobb, soldiers used cannons when the beasts ran in a stampede near the fort. They shot cannons into the herds of buffalo. They shot the buffalo by the hundreds. The weather got warm and the stench from the rotting carcasses almost drove the troops from the fort. The soldiers were ordered to haul the carcasses away and burn them (Smits, 1994).

            During the Medicine Lodge Treaty Council in 1867, the Kiowa Chief Satanta complained about the buffalo being slaughtered. He said “A long time ago this land belonged to our fathers, but when I go up to the river, I see a camp of soldiers, and they are cutting my trees down, or killing my buffalo. I don’t like that, and when I see it my heart feels like bursting with sorrow” (Smits, 1994, page 321). Satana witnessed the infantry, who escorted the peace commissioners from Fort Larned to the Medicine Lodge Creek, when they slaughtered buffalo along the march. The soldier hunters stopped and cut the tongues from the buffalo and sliced rump steaks from the buffalo they killed and left the rest to rot. They continued their blood shed during the entire march. “Has the white man become a child, that he should recklessly kill and not eat? When the red men slay game, they do so that they may live and not starve” complained Satana (Smits, 1994, page 321). Before the treaty council, the military officials were hopeful the buffalo were being hunted to extinction.

            Major General Winfield Scott Hancock, commander of the Department of the Missouri which covered Missouri, Kansas, Colorado, and New Mexico, was stationed at Fort Dodge in April of 1867. He warned Arapaho chiefs, including Little Raven that they may need to find another means of surviving because game has become scarce. They needed to befriend the white man so they would take care of them if necessary.

            Sherman joined the Peace Commission for the Fort Laramie Treaty of April 1868. The treaty granted the Great Sioux Reservation the right to hunt on any lands north of North Platte and on the Republican Fork and on the Smokey Hill River where buffalo roamed. Sherman opposed their right to hunt.

            On February 29, 1868, Sheridan assumed command of the Department of the Missouri and was stationed at Fort Leavenworth. He brought attention to the problem about “Indian depredations” in relation to the raids by the southern plains’ warriors. They were not confined to the reservation. They were permitted to hunt in various areas according to the Medicine Lodge Treaty. Sheridan’s answer to the problem involved the killing of the Indians’ horses and buffalo. Lietenant Colonel Luther P. Bradley received strict orders to set up camp near buffalo herds. “Ordered to the forks of the Republican to make permanent camp to kill all the buffalo we find, and drive the Arapahoes and Cheyennes south, the Sioux north” (Smits, 1994, page 323). He and his troops carried out their mission with gusto but only killed a few buffalo. The buffalo had moved to another location.

            Sheridan’s confidence dwindled when he saw the massive amount of buffalo. During the 1868-69 campaign he saw north of the Union Pacific Railroad huge herds. He saw at least 200,000 in one day. The amount of buffalo he viewed could last the Native Americans at least 20 years. Other officers estimated the numbers ranged to at least ten billion animals. Sheridan had to face the dilemma and he realized his small army could not wipe out the animals. The troops resumed to hunt the beasts to supplement the government rations.

            An attempt to save the buffalo occurred when Edward W. Wynkeep, agent for the Cheyennes provided Henry Bergh, the president of the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, with a reason to save the buffalo from the white hunters. He told Henry the most prominent reason for the hostilities of the Indian people was the killing of the buffalo. Little Robe of the Cheyennes told representative in Washington that they don’t kill the white farmer’s ox. The killing of the buffalo secured an incentive for war.

            Some army officials such as Custer boasted about how he could wipe out a lot of Indians with just his seventh cavalry. Captain William J. Fetterman bragged about his prowess “give me eighty men and I would ride through the whole Sioux nation” (Smits, 1994, page 325). Both of their military careers were ill-fated. It did appear foolish to some of the military officials that the army had to resort to killing buffalo to defeat Indians and the killing of the buffalo did not serve as a noble pastime.

 

            The buffalo robe served as a source of warmth and style for the eastern United States, Europe and the west. The buffalo were usually killed in the fall and winter months when the fur was the thickest. From 1830 to 1870 the buffalo trade flourished for the Plains Indians. People also used buffalo hides for mattresses, coats, blankets and any purpose which required warmth and comfort. Approximately 200,000 buffalo robes entered the market each year usually supplied by Native American and Metis hunters of the Great Plains. Native Americans traded hides for tobacco, sugar, whiskey, bracelets, coffee beans and sometimes guns. One of the robes would retail in the east from $5. to $50. The buffalo would have lasted for years without danger of extinction if the perfect storms did not hit the Plains. The first storm involved the introduction of the transcontinental railroad which served as cheap and quick transportation and the second storm involved the commercial tanneries in the eastern portion of the country made a discovery of buffalo for industry purposes (Rinella, 2008).

            The answer for the “Indian problem” revealed itself for Sheridan as a result of the industrialized companies’ discovery. The Pennsylvania tannery in 1871 created a method of converting buffalo hides into commercial leather which was used for harnesses and machine belting needed by industrializing America. The hides sold for $1. to $3. Hide hunters flocked to western Kansas where the buffalo were plentiful. The fate of the southern herd was sealed.

           

            In the spring of 1874, buffalo runners left Fort Dodge to open a post in the Texas Panhandle at Adobe Walls by the Canadian River. Hundreds of angry Comanches and Cheyennes ambushed the post on June 27, 1874. Thomas A. Osborn, Governor of Kansas, pleaded with General John Pope, commander of the Department of the Missouri, to send soldiers to the fort to rescue the buffalo runners. Pope refused and the reason he gave for his refusal involved the fact that the post sold whiskey, guns and ammunition not only to the buffalo runners but also to the Indians. These weapons were used for the ambush and he also did not want to enable the buffalo runners to unlawfully intrude on Indian reservations. Pope’s refusal infuriated Sheridan. He wanted the southern herd’s elimination. In order to accomplish this, was to end tribal treaty rights to hunt (Smits, 1994).

            The U.S Government usually did not make an attempt to protect Indian land from white invaders. The Indians often took matters into their own hands. The Comanches vigilantly fought and killed many buffalo runners.  They scalped them and mutilated their bodies. Some of the dead were displayed with many bullet holes and arrows stuck in them. The hide hunters worked on driving the Indians away from their hunting areas. Paranoia rose amongst some of the hide hunters (Rinella, 2008).

            President Grant went back on his word to use the army to keep hide hunters off the Indian reservations. He did promise a group of Southern Cheyennes and Arapahoes that he would keep the interlopers off their land.  On September 30, 1874, as a result of the white invasion, John D. Miles, the tribes’ agent, sent a letter to the commissioner of Indian Affairs with a compilation of the grievances of the tribes. The plea was ignored. Instead the army decided to support the efforts of the hide hunters.

            The army posts on the southern plains provided ammunition to the hide hunters. They also equipped the hunters with protection, supplies, markets, storage and shipping facilities. Near Fort Griffin a settlement grew up from a small village to a town that became the main shipping and supply depot for the buffalo hunters in West Texas. Because of the army’s protection, the hide hunters expanded their posts to Forts Dodge, Concho and Richardson.

 

            Due to Sheridan’s leadership the buffalo were exterminated from the southern herd or the beasts were driven away from Indian hunting grounds. He organized a campaign that involved five military regiments. They attacked hostile bands of Indians in the Texas Panhandle. The Red River War of 1874 resulted in the final conquest of the southern plains tribes. One of the commanders during the war was Colonel Nelson A. Miles. Miles went on further campaigns and wiped out a lot of Native Americans and buffalo near the Washita River. “This might seem like cruelty and wasteful extravagance but the buffalo, like the Indian, stood in the way of civilization and in the path of progress, and the decree had gone forth that they must both give way… The same territory… was supporting those vast herds of wild game, is now covered with domestic animals which afford the food supply for hundreds of millions of people in civilized countries” (Smits, 1994, page 333).

            The question came up why the army could not subdue the Native Americans without killing their food supply by the federal government. Sheridan went undercover and gave covert orders. He ordered verbally his military commanders to continue to attack various Indian communities while the buffalo continued to be annihilated by soldiers and hide hunters.

With the help of the army, the buffalo runners managed to destroy the entire southern herd by 1879. The termination of the buffalo occurred on the central plains during the early 1870s, and the destruction of the buffalo occurred on the northern plains by the early 1880s. Granted all buffalo were not destroyed because they still exist today.

 

The culmination of destruction and takeover of Native American land took the shape of many forms from the killing of the buffalo to outright murder of the indigenous people. Treaties were put into place and the Native Americans were made to believe they would be protected from white settler intrusion. The Euro-Americans continued to take their land from them no matter what laws existed. Some people stood up for their rights while others only wanted them terminated or reduced to beggars. Many Indian warriors fought long and hard to protect their rights to land, hunting to feed their communities and for their mere existence.

Betty Soskin, Oldest National Service Ranger

 

At 100, The National Park Service's Oldest Active Ranger Is Still Going Strong

September 22, 20214:50 PM ET by JONATHAN FRANKLIN

National Park Service ranger Betty Soskin greets visitors at the Rosie the Riveter/WWII Home Front National Historical Park in Richmond, Calif., in January 2020. Soskin turned 100 Wednesday and is the oldest ranger with the park service.

Betty Soskin has accomplished a lot over the course of her life.

She's been a published author, a songwriter-activist during the civil rights movement and a businesswoman and now serves with the National Park Service — holding the title as the country's oldest ranger.

Oldest National Park Ranger Shares 'What Gets Remembered'Now Soskin can add another milestone to her story: turning 100.Soskin was born in Detroit on Sept. 22, 1921. She currently is a ranger at the Rosie the Riveter/WWII Home Front National Historical Park in Richmond, Calif.Growing up in a family with Cajun-Creole roots, Soskin and her relatives migrated to the West Coast, eventually settling down in Oakland, Calif., after the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 damaged New Orleans, according to the National Park Service.

She had a love-hate relationship with Rosie the Riveter Soskin's career with the National Park Service began in 2000 after she attended a presentation on a plan to create the Rosie the Riveter/WWII Home Front National Historical Park.                                                                         Soskin proclaims "a love-hate relationship with Rosie," the park service wrote in an article.Soskin said she never saw herself as a "Rosie the Riveter." "That really is a white woman's story," Soskin said in a 2014 NPR interview.                    Soskin told the National Park Service that she knew firsthand the stories of women who worked in wartime industry, including their experiences battling racism, segregation and discrimination. Soskin sits in front of the Rosie the Riveter/WWII Home Front National Historical Park Visitor Education Center.Despite her mixed feelings on Rosie, Soskin began working with the park service on a grant to help tell untold stories of Black Americans and the homefront during World War II, according to the park service.                     Before Making Military History, She Witnessed One Of History's Worst Race Riots The grant experience ultimately led Soskin to a temporary position with the park service at the age of 84. Four years later in 2004, Soskin officially became a park ranger.

Soskin's legacy will live on. As a ranger, Soskin continues to leave a lasting impact on those around her — being honored for her years of dedication and service. To celebrate her birthday, the park announced it will be giving out limited edition ink and virtual stamps honoring Soskin.                                     "Over the past decade and a half, Ranger Betty has shared her experiences as well as the efforts and sacrifices of women from diverse backgrounds living and working on the World War II home front," the National Park Service said in an Instagram post honoring her birthday.                                                             She's already received a presidential commemorative coin from then-President Barack Obama at the 2015 National Christmas Tree Lighting ceremony. A year later, she was honored with an entry in the Congressional Record. But her achievements may have their most lasting impact at a Bay Area middle school renamed in her honor: the Betty Reid Soskin Middle School. "Having a school named for me is more than I ever thought of because it means that a number of children will go into the world knowing who I was and what I was doing here," Soskin said in an interview with KGO-TV. "Maybe it will make a difference."