The Rivals: Tecumseh and Harrison

 

“No tribe has the right to sell,

 even to each other, muchless to strangers… 

Sell a country? Why not sell the air,

the great sea, as well as the earth? Didn’t the Great

Spirit make them all for the use of his children?

-Tecumseh

Shawnee

 

Tecumseh and William Henry Harrison, ambitious and intelligent men, experienced conflicting aspirations which led to severe repercussions for Native Americans. Both had a strong interest in land and who should reside on it. They served as mighty warriors for their people.  Tecumseh strived to unite Native Americans from all over the country to stop the invasion of white settlers and was noted as a great orator. Harrison sought to satisfy the whims of a steadily growing white population and convert territories to statehood with self-sufficient governance.  That meant the increase of population of Euro-Americans in scarcely populated territories. Both men bucked horns when they discussed their differences in which Harrison ended up the victor and the Native American people lost large portions of land, their livelihood and their means of self-preservation.

            Tecumseh was born in 1768. Early in his life, he discovered that he despised the Americans because of the atrocities they inflicted on the Shawnee people. He also did not like some of the things he witnessed Indians doing to white men. Trained to be a warrior by his older brother Cheeseekau, he proceeded with any type of altercation with as little violence as possible. Tecumseh did not believe in torture. He believed a quick kill was best and the most humane.

            During the late 1780s, Tecumseh went on many raids against white settlers. He joined his brother Cheeseekau and a small band of Shawnee warriors in Tennessee, where they met a group of Cherokee Chickamauga, to continue with raiding activities. Cheeseekau died in one of the skirmishes so Tecumseh became the leader of the Shawnee band. Bluejacket and Tecumseh led a scouting party to help defeat General St. Clair’s army at the bloody Battle of Wabash River. Tecumseh fought at the Battle of Fallen Timbers on the Mauma River and lost to General Anthony Wayne and his army. Both sides signed the Treaty of Greenville except Tecumseh. He would not sign any treaty and willingly give up land that he thought belonged to the Indian people (History.com Editors, 2019).

 

            During the early 1800s, Tecumseh settled in Ohio and served as a respected leader, war chief and orator. In 1805, his younger brother Lalawethika declared after an alcohol induced vision, that it was his intention to reclaim their lands and culture. He changed his name to Tenskwatawa and shortly afterwards he was referred to as the “Prophet.” After he predicted the solar eclipse in 1806, a massive number of Indian people came from various locations to become followers of the Prophet. In 1808, Tecumseh and the Prophet moved their ever-growing alliance to Prophetstown which was near the Wabash and Tippecanoe Rivers in present-day Indiana (History.com Editors, 2019).

 

            Harrison was born in Virginia on February 9, 1773.  His father, Benjamin Harrison (1726 – 91) signed the Declaration of Independence and served as the governor of Virginia. In 1791, he dropped his studies in medicine to pursue a career of becoming a soldier. Known as an “Indian fighter,” he either negotiated through treaties or fought battles to gain access to land once inhabited by Native Americans. Harrison was cited for bravery in the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794 (Matuz, 2012). The Americans won this battle which opened up much of Ohio to white settlement. Harrison, promoted to captain as a result of this win, became the commander of Ohio’s Fort Washington which was near present-day Cincinnati. As a result of treaties negotiated by Harrison with Indian people, he gained access to millions of acres of land (History.com Editors, 2009).

He was given instruction to have the Indian people sign as many treaties as possible to give up their land. Harrison was successful at acquiring land from the Native Americans and not always by act of treaties, also through the act of war against the indigenous people. The Treaty of Fort Wayne afforded the federal government additional land. Several of the tribes gave up three million acres of land in exchange for annual payments ranging from $200. to $5,000. Harrison did not experience success with Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa concerning the signing of treaties.

Tecumseh feared that many Shawnee and other Ohio Valley Indians had become dependent on trading with the Americans for guns, cloth, and metal goods and he was adamantly against such dependence. Tecumseh wanted all Indian people to return to their traditional ways. White settlers readily encroached on their government-recognized tribal land holdings (History.com Editors, 2019). The American government did not want to ruffle the feathers of the settlers. Also, it was the wish of Harrison to populate the Northwest territory and convert territorial land into states. Harrison viewed Tecumseh as a threat to that happening. “He was heartily tired of living in a Territory, one of the fairest of the globe condemned to be a state of nature, the haunt of a few wretched savages” (Sugden, 1997, pg. 215).

            In 1809, Tecumseh focused heavily on building a confederacy to fight against white settler encroachment which consisted of Native Americans who resided in various locations. He managed to persuade Indians from the Old Northwest and the deep South to unite and resist. They accumulated enough strength to stop the whites from taking more land. Hope rose abundant while Indians from Canada, Minnesota and as far south as Florida joined forces to prevent whites from taking their precious land. By 1810, he managed to establish the Ohio Valley Confederacy and the following nations were part of the confederacy: Shawnee, Potawatomi, Kickapoo, Winnebago, Menominee, Ottawa, and Wyandot (History.com Editors, 2019). Tecumseh traveled great distances to promote his pan-Indian alliance. He persuaded many Native American people to join him through powerful speeches which involved their need to overcome the invaders’ takeover of their land. They needed to unite and resist the American way of life, the American government and assimilation. Native Americans needed to hold onto their Indian culture.

A large number of Native Americans lived at Prophetstown, the capital of the confederacy, and there were so many the white settlers asked the government to protect them. Prophetstown was established in recognition of Tecumseh’s brother, the prophet and was located near the Tippecanoe River in the Indiana Territory.

 

            A legendary meeting between Tecumseh and Harrison was held in Vincennes on August 15, 1810. Tecumseh wanted the meeting held at his headquarters and the capital of his Indian Confederacy, Prophetstown. Harrison refused so Tecumseh gave in to the governor’s demands. Tecumseh feared this was the man he was fighting for the northwest. Tecumseh led his associates into Vincennes and they camped near a clearing in a small grove of trees close to Grouseland where Harrison’s large two-story home with tall chimneys was located. Harrison and his followers, seated on a platform, motioned Tecumseh to take a seat. Tecumseh refused and said “was the most proper place for the Indians as they liked to repose upon the bosom of their mother” (Sugden, 1997, page 198). Tecumseh sat with his entourage on the grass in front of the platform.

In attendance at the conference were the territorial supreme court, the secretary of the territory, several army officers and unarmed citizens. Thirteen soldiers from Fort Knox stood guard. Tecumseh and several other Indians were in attendance along with the chief of the Weas who approved the treaty of Fort Wayne. The Potawatomi chief Winamek, a hated adversary, who lived under the threat of being killed for his indiscretions, also supported the aforementioned treaty. He remained silent while he sat next to Harrison on the grass armed, holding pistols.

The two men faced each other, Tecumseh was more passionate about why he was at the meeting while Harrison sat mildly alert. Tecumseh spent several days trying to convince Harrison to no avail about his point of view. Harrison listened to what Tecumseh had to say and would not give into Tecumseh’s requests. A short break occurred and when the conference resumed on August 20^th both sides were at a stalemate and immense tension existed between the two parties.

            Tecumseh continued to patiently try to make his point of stopping the invasion onto their  territory. He spoke about how the Americans identified individual tribes as owners of tracts of land for the purpose of future purchases. He was against the chiefs who had agreed to the land deals. Unsure if the treaties were approved by the American president, he spoke of them as being invalid and unfairly negotiated due to the ignorance of the Indian people who signed them. A meeting at Brownstown would be held in the near future to discuss the chiefs who signed the treaties and these individuals were to be punished, the deaths of these individuals rest with the United States. The Americans need to stop future treaties from being established. Harrison spent many years speaking with tribal leaders but he never met one like Tecumseh. Tecumseh spoke confidently for all tribes on the continent. Tecumseh did not support the use of war to solve land disagreements but felt future wars were unavoidable due to American policies. He pleaded for justice and avowed that his people were being oppressed. He stood firm and said they did not want annuities, they wanted their land (Sugden, 1997).

            “Brothers they want to save that piece of land. We do not wish you to take it. It is small enough for our purposes. If you do take it you must blame yourself as the cause of trouble between us and the tribes who sold it to you. I want to present boundary line to continue. Should you cross it, I assure you it will be productive of bad consequences” (Sugden, 1997, page 202).

            The Wyandot, Kickapoo, Potawatomi, and Winnebago speakers relayed the same message and stated that Tecumseh was their leader. Harrison and Tecumseh would not yield to  each other. Harrison said the lands were appropriately purchased. Both men saw no end to the conflict. The Governor told Tecumseh that he would send his concerns to the President.

            …”as the Great Chief is to determine the matter; I hope the Great Spirit will put some sense into his head to induce him to direct you to give up this land. It is true, he is so far off. He will not be injured by the war. He may still sit in his town, and drink his wine, whilst you and I will have to fight it out” (Sugden, 1997, page 202).

            The meeting ended without a satisfactory conclusion for either party. However, Tecumseh made the mistake of letting Harrison know that he planned to travel south to continue his recruitment of Indian people to join the confederacy. The unfortunate announcement served as the detriment to the confederacy and the future of the Native Americans.

           

            Tecumseh’s organized resistance led Harrison to travel to Prophetstown. He arrived during the evening of November 6, 1811. Soon after he arrived, he was met with a white flag requesting a cease fire until Tecumseh and Harrison could conduct a parley before any action was taken since Tecumseh was away recruiting warriors from the “Five Civilized Tribes.” The request represented a delay. Harrison was tired so he agreed to Tenskwatawa’s terms.

His military force settled on a hill approximately a mile from Prophetstown on the banks of Burnett Creek. He did not trust Tenskwatawa’s cease fire request. The troops were ordered to form a rectangular defensive position for the evening. The front line was armed with militia and 300 regulars in reserve in case reinforcement was necessary. The southern section fell under the command of Captain Spier Spencer of the Indiana Yellow Jackets named for the yellow overcoats they wore into battle.

Harrison’s fears were realized when Tenskwatawa (the Prophet) wanted to break the cease fire. Tecumseh warned his brother to not incite war until the Confederacy was strengthened. The Prophet stood on a rock ledge above Prophetstown which was called Prophet’s Rock and enraged his followers into battle by chanting and singing war songs. He promised his rantings would protect the warriors from bullets.

At 4:00 in the morning Harrison’s men were completely surrounded by the Prophet’s warriors. The warriors attacked the northern end of the American military rectangle and fired the first shots of the battle. The rest of the sleeping soldiers, awakened by the ruckus, joined the rest of the soldiers. A fierce attack occurred on the southern section of the American rectangle which caused Captain Spencer’s yellow jackets to retreat. Two commanding lieutenants lost their lives to the swarming warriors.

Harrison transferred Captain David Robb from the northern section to provide aid to the southern section of the rectangle. The warriors were forced to withdraw since Harrison augmented their defenses. A second wave of warrior attacks on the northern and southern flanks occurred. The Americans held their own against the fierceness of the attacks. The battle was being fought with equal force from both sides.

The fighting continued for approximately two hours until Harrison’s superior numbers and firepower forced the warriors to retreat. The braves returned to Prophetstown fed up with the Prophet’s failed promises to protect them. They abandoned Prophetstown, leaving it vulnerable to Harrison’s raid.

On November 8, 1811, Harrison rode into Prophetstown and torched the entire town. Tecumseh return-ed three months after the battle between Harrison and the Prophet’s warriors to find the town in complete ruins and no one around. Disheartened because the ruined headquarters of the Confederacy and the missing warriors meant the end of a dream which led to an end of much of the Indian resistance. All of Tecumseh’s hard work went down the drain. They more or less became sitting ducks in the face of a takeover of much of their land (Sugden, 1997).

            Tecumseh traveled to various parts of the country to recruit other tribes to participate in his effort to thwart the Euro-Americans take over of their land. He joined the British with his remaining followers during the War of 1812 in Michigan. He played a major role in defeating the American forces at the Siege of Detroit. After the defeat of Detroit, he joined British Major-General Henry Proctor’s regiment during the invasion of Ohio and again fought against Harrison and his troops. Harrison invaded Canada and the British were forced to flee. Harrison did not give up his grudge against Tecumseh. Harrison pursued Tecumseh and his warriors to the Thames River where Tecumseh was killed on October 5, 1813 (History.com Editors, 2019).

            Some historians in Canada refer to Tecumseh as the Father of Canada. He fought hard to conquer the Americans in Canada. He was relentless. His loyalty was never to Canada or to the British in Canada. His dream involved his pan-Indian movement that would secure land for his people, the land that was necessary for the Indian people to carry out their traditional way of life (Goltz, 1983).

            The destruction of Prophetstown led to the end of the confederacy Tecumseh brought together at Prophetstown. Harrison saw Tecumseh as a threat regarding his goal of populating the Northwest Territory with white settlers in his effort to convert territories into self-sufficient states. More and more land was needed to accommodate the onslaught of white settlers. A minimum 60,000 white people were needed to convert a territory into a state. Native Americans became more susceptible to Euro-American takeover of most of their land.

           

The Prophet’s Curse (Tecumseh’s brother Tenskwa-tawa)

“When Harrison was nominated as one of the stable of Whig candidates in 1836, the Shawnee Prophet, whom he had defeated in the Battle of Tippecanoe, emerged again to put a curse on him. ‘Harrison will not win this year to be the Great Chief,’ he predicted, ‘but he may win next time. If he does… he will not finish his term. He will die in office. […] And when he does, you will remember my brother Tecumseh’s death. You think that I have lost my powers. I who caused the sun to darken and red men to give up firewater. But I tell, Harrison will, and after him every Great Chief chosen every twenty years thereafter shall also die. When each one dies, let everyone remember the death of my people.’ An idle threat? Who knows? But the fact is, The twenty-year cycle of death played itself out with Harrison (1840), Lincoln (1860), Garfield (1880), McKinley (1900), Harding (1920), Franklin D. Roosevelt (1940), and Kennedy (1960). Only Ronald Reagan, elected in 1980, escaped the curse, though he was shot in an assassination attempt” (Matuz, 2012, page 161).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The Odawa Smallpox Genocide

 

“Let those I serve express their thanks according

to their own upbringing and honor.”

-Ohiyesa

 

Smallpox was used in biological warfare against a segment of the population unprepared to fight off its lethal properties. In 1763, the British provided the Odawa Indians gifts consisting of three little insulated metal boxes. During the time the biological warfare occurred, the Odawa were on a peace mission returning British soldiers safely to the British settlement in Montreal. The British instructed them to not open the metal boxes until the Odawa returned from Montreal to their village near present day Harbor Springs, Michigan. Once the metal boxes were opened, the smallpox virus ran rampant amongst the Odawa people. Thousands lost their lives to the dreadful virus. The smallpox massacre was remembered in legends passed down for generations with the Odawa people. Pontiac’s rebellion, and the actions of few British officers were linked to the rationale behind the biological warfare inflicted against the unsuspecting Odawa people in 1763.   

           

            The Odawa Indians resided in various locations stemming from Canada, lower Michigan, the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and as far as Oklahoma. Ancient birch bark scrolls indicated the Odawa resided in the eastern areas of North America. They lived in the Great Lakes area for centuries before the arrival of the French in the 17^th century.  In the past, colonists in Quebec referred to all Algonquian tribal people from the Great Lakes as Odawa even if they were from another tribe such as the Ojibwe tribe. However, like other tribes they had their own language, customs, traditions, and own history which made them a distinct population and tribal nation. The Odawa, also known as the Ottawa, had a close connection to the Ojibwe/Chippewa and Potawatomi. All three tribes, referred to as the Anishnaabek (the original people), were known as the Three Fires Confederacy. They fought wars together, inter-married, and shared villages.

The name Odawa was said to mean traders, buyers and sellers. They were considered prominent leaders concerning the fur trading business. Their abilities included their diplomatic skills with other tribal nations and white settlers. They were great fishermen, hunters and also relied upon their corn crops, prepared maple syrup and gathered wild berries to provide for their families. The Odawa products, sought after by other tribal nations and white settlers, consisted of woven mats, black ash baskets and birch bark goods (Cappel, 2007).

The area the Odawa  lived in was referred to as L’Arbre Croche, which included a series of villages stretching from present day Cross Village to Harbor Springs, Michigan. “Arbre,” meant tree and “croche,” meant crooked or hook like. They deformed trees to serve as council trees and marker trees. Most of the trees were large maples. The deformed trees were formerly used to guide Native Americans on the overland path from Chicago to the Straits of Mackinac. To deform a tree, the center trunk was removed at a human’s shoulder height which caused the surrounding branches to grow out in an inverted umbrella shape. Deformed trees of this nature can also be found in ancient sacred sites in New England (Hanka, N.D.).

The Odawa people were not completely exterminated or moved to another part of the country like many other tribes. Because many of the Odawa people were peace-loving and agrarian, they decided to assimilate with the white settlers. The common belief of the white settlers was if the inhabitants farmed the land they lived on, the land belonged to them. Otherwise, if the land was not being farmed, it was up for grabs. They worked as lumbermen, shop keepers, carpenters, and educators alongside the settlers and were part of the changing economic environment.

During the summer months, women were responsible for planting and cultivating corn, beans, peas, and other vegetables. When crops were plentiful, they traded the surplus. White merchants often depended on Indian corn to feed their voyageurs (canoeists) each year.  Agriculture was considered to be the responsibility of the women of the village along with the production of bulrush mats, and tanned hides for the wigwams. The hides were attached to a frame of saplings bent to form a dome shape. The women also made fishing nets, sweet grass baskets, and other containers. While the women worked the fields and watched their children, the men hunted or fished. They were also on alert to protect their village. The Odawa relied on agriculture, hunting, fishing and berry gathering to provide for the community.

 

            From 1763 to 1766 Chief Pontiac of the Odawa tribe from the Detroit area became famous because of his role in Pontiac’s rebellion. The rebellion represented an American Indian struggle against the British military efforts concerning the Great Lakes region. In July of 1763 Pontiac successfully defeated the British at the Battle of Bloody Run. He was unable to capture the fort at Detroit. Other Indian groups joined Pontiac’s rebellion against the British and these groups captured eight forts in what were present-day Illinois, Michigan, Indiana, Ohio and Pennsylvania. They were crafty warriors with one thing in mind, to defeat the British by tricking the soldiers into allowing them to enter the forts, then they would capture and/or kill the residents (Cappel, 2007).

            When the Detroit Fort was under siege other tribal groups attacked and took over Ft. Presque Isle, Ft. Le Boeuf, Ft. Venango, Ft. Miami, Ft. St. Joseph, Ft. Ouilatenon, Fort Sandusky and Ft. Michilimackinac. Ft. Bedford and Ft. Ligonier. Ft. Pitt and Ft. Niagara were assaulted but not taken. Pontiac led a multitude of American Indians from several tribes in the resistance effort to drive the British from American/Indian held lands. The attacks on British forts may have led to much of the animosity of the British towards the Indian people.  Sir Jeffery Amherst heard about the Indian attacks on the British forts (Cappel, 2007). Pontiac’s Rebellion came to an abrupt halt when Colonel Henry Bouquet led a large army unit from Fort Pitt to Ohio and forced the Indian warriors to make peace (Douglas, 1996).

            Amherst served as a British officer in the British Army. He was responsible for Britain’s successful war campaign at the New France territory during the French and Indian War in 1763 and he took over New France.  Because of this victory, Amherst was promoted to Commander-in-Chief of the Forces; shortly after this appointment he was also promoted to General. Amherst was known for being a racist and he passed on his beliefs to those under his command. He believed all Indian people were “savages,” undeserving of living.

            “The depiction of Indians as wild beasts was quite common among early American leaders, including George Washington and Thomas Jefferson. David E. Stannard writes: ‘As is so often the case, it was New England’s religious elite who made the point more graphically than anyone. Referring to some Indians who had given offense to the colonists, the Reverend Cotton Mather wrote: ‘Once you have but got the Track of those Ravenous howling Wolves, then pursue them vigorously; Turn not back till they are consumed…Beat them small as the Dust Before the Wind.’ Lest this be regarded as mere rhetoric, empty of literal intent, consider that another of New England’s most esteemed religious leaders, the Reverend Solomon Stoddard, as late as 1703 formally proposed to the Massachusetts Governor that the colonists be given the financial wherewithal to purchase and train large packs of dogs ‘to hunt Indians as they do bears’” (Stannard, 1992, pg. 241).

Amherst’s blindness, due to his hatred, led him to seek war against the Indian people as much as possible. Native Americans, concerned about warnings given them by the French that the British wanted to take all their land,  led them to fear Amherst. He gave Seneca land near Niagara to some of his officers for payment for their dedicated service. His actions proved the Britain’s attitude toward land rights and treaty rights between the Six Nations and the colony of New York were to be ignored (Utley and Washburn, 2001).

Amherst plotted to exterminate the Indian people at the same time the Odawa were returning British officers and soldiers to the British fort in Montreal. “With the surrender of New France to Great Britain, command of the English North American military forces fell to Lord Jeffrey Amherst. An arrogant aristocrat who despised all Indians, Amherst withheld gunpowder and lead from France’s former native allies, stating that England’s enemies ought to be punished, not rewarded. When informed the tribes depended on their muskets for taking game and would starve without ammunition, he remained unswayed, callously informing his aides that they should seed the complaining bands with smallpox so as to lend starvation a speedy hand” (Robertson, 2001, pg. 119).

He gave orders to supply smallpox infected blankets to American Indians at Ft. Pitt. He expressed his readiness to use any possible method to wipe out the Indian race completely. A letter from Colonel Henry Bouquet to General Amherst dated July 13, 1763 suggested the distribution of blankets to exterminate the Indians. In another letter dated July 16, 1763 from Amherst to Bouquet, Amherst gave approval of supplying contaminated blankets and every other method to exterminate the Indian people (Cappel, 2007).

“In the spring of 1763, during the Indian uprising led by Ottawa Chief Pontiac, a party of Delewares ringed British owned Fort Pitt (now Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania), calling for its surrender. Captain Simeon Ecuyer, a Swiss mercenary and the fort’s senior officer, saved the garrison by giving the Delawares a gift – two blankets and a handkerchief. The Indians readily accepted the offering, but still demanded the Ecuyer vacate the stockade. They had no inkling that the blankets and kerchief were more deadly than a platoon of English sharpshooters. Ecuyer had ordered the presents deliberately infected with small pox spores at the post hospital. By mid-July, the Delewares were dying as though they had been raked by a grape cannonade. Fort Pitt remained firmly in English hands” (Robertson, 2001, pg. 119).

                       

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            On June 2nd, 1763, a group of Ojibwe men joined by members of the Sauk nation decided to invite the soldiers and settlers residing at the fort to watch a performance of a game called baaga’adowe, a game later referred to as lacrosse. The game was staged outside of the fort. Soldiers and Canadians intermingled with the Indian people. Many of the Native women were covered in blankets and they moved near the open gate to the fortress. 

They played diligently pretending their focus was on the game until one of the men threw a ball near the gate to the fort. As they ran towards the gate, they began yelling war howls. They grabbed hatchets from the Indian women which were hidden under the blankets the women were wearing. The attack was fierce. During the massacre many of the soldiers were scalped while they were still alive. (Scalping was also practiced by the British, it was not only an Indian warfare custom.) 

Lieutenant Lesley, Captain Etherington, eleven soldiers and three traders survived the attack. The three traders and an English soldier were taken by the Ojibwe in a canoe. While they were being transported to the Isles of Castor, approximately 100 Odawa warriors saved the four prisoners. It was rumored the Ojibwe planned on taking the prisoners to the Isles of Castor to kill them. The Odawas shook hands with the prisoners and took them in their own canoes back to Ft. Michilimackinac. The Odawa were well-armed and took over the fort. In spite of the takeover, they made peace and it was decided to join forces concerning the running of the fort with the Ojibwe. Ft. Michilimackinac, a busy hub for trade, had proven to be a successful venture (Amour, 1971). 

            On June 11, 1763 the Odawa people transported Lieutenant Lesley, Captain Etherington, and eleven soldiers by canoe to L’Arbre Croche. They were welcomed and invited to participate in the day-to-day activities at the Odawa settlement. The Odawa people residing at L’Arbre Croche wanted to be friends with the British and many did not support Pontiac’s efforts to destroy the British. They established a working relationship with the white settlers in the area based on peaceful cooperation, trading and commerce. The Odawa traded furs and venison for items that made their lives easier such as pots and pans. They worked alongside the white settlers in the lumber business. The British captives provided help with the building of the longhouses for the Odawa.

 

Canoes heavily packed with dried venison, apples, other produce, and weapons were lined up along the beach awaiting departure. The soldiers were eager to return to their people; but at the same time they were feeling some regret about leaving the hospitality of the Odawa people. It was the middle of July in 1763. Some of the same Odawa men who took over the fort from the Ojibwe were transporting the British soldiers back to Montreal (Cappel, 2007).

The Odawa men, British officers and soldiers boarded the canoes. The British officers and soldiers were required to row the canoes. They sat in the center of the canoes with the Odawa men in the back and front of the canoes. The rowing was easier since the waters were not choppy for most of the journey. The group of Odawa men and British made good time and arrived in Montreal on the second week in August. It took a little over three weeks to complete the journey. Stops were made along the way to sleep, fish and hunt. After holding council with the British leaders, they departed to return to L’Arbre Croche the third week in August in 1763 and arrived at L’Arbre Croche the third week in September. Amherst and other British officers gave them a metal box and told them not to open it until they arrived at their village (Cappel, 2007).

“…it was notable fact at this time the Ottawas were greatly reduced in numbers from what they were in former times, on account of the small-pox which they brought from Montreal during the French War with Great Britain. This smallpox… shut up in a tin box, with the strict injunction not to open the box on their way homeward, but only when they should reach their country; and that this box contained something that would do them great good, and their people! The foolish people believed really there was something in the box – supernatural, that would do them great good. Accordingly, after they reached home, they opened the box; but behold there was another box inside the second box, smaller yet. So, they kept on this way till they came to a very small box, which was not more than an inch long; and when they opened the last one, they found nothing but moldy particles in this last little box! They wondered very much what it was, and a great many closely inspected to try to find out what it meant. But alas, alas! Pretty soon burst out a terrible sickness among them” (Cappel, 2007, pg. 104-105).

Once smallpox finds a host in a community, it can spread rapidly. There are two types of the smallpox virus: variola major and variola minor. Variola major was the most severe and the most common form which had a death rate of 30%. The strain of variola minor has a death rate of 1%. Between 1940 and 1970 there was a widespread vaccination to prevent the disease.

            The smallpox virus can be spread from person to person by simply breathing in airborne respiratory droplets from a contaminated person or by touching the skin rash, sores and scabs of an infected person, being exposed to cadavers who died from it or by sharing blankets, clothing, and towels. Smallpox is a highly contagious disease. The best way to prevent the disease from spreading during the 1700s was by either burning or burying the deceased along with their clothing and blankets.

            The infection of the virus begins after an incubation period of approximately 12 to 14 days. During the incubation period, people do not experience any symptoms and they are not contagious at all. The first sign of the disease, referred to as the prodromal phase, lasts two to four days and the symptoms during this phase were: fever, severe headache, nausea and vomiting, aching body, and sore throat. People may be contagious during this stage. The prodromal stage may last up to 20 days or longer.

            During the prodromal stage, small red spots appear on a person’s tongue and in the mouth which turn into sores containing the virus. The rash spreads on a person’s face, arms, legs, and feet and the rest of the body within 24 hours. A rash turn into raised bumps and these bumps become fluid filled. A fever reoccurs and remains high until scabs form. Again, this was when the infected person was the most contagious especially when the mouth sores break open and fill the mouth and throat with the variola virus.       

            Which further complicates this virus were some of the other life threatening and extremely problematic symptoms such as bronchopneumonia, arthritis, serious eye problems, and osteomyelitis. The eye problems include corneal ulceration and blindness. Osteomyelitis, referred to as an infection in a bone, can reach a bone by traveling through the bloodstream or spreading from nearby tissue. Once considered an incurable condition, osteomyelitis can be successfully treated today. Most people required surgery to remove parts of the bone that had died which was followed by strong antibiotics, often delivered intravenously, typically for at least six weeks. The disease caused serious and problematic symptoms which often ended in death (Cappel, 2007). Native Americans lived in fear of smallpoxs’ debilitating and deadly symptoms.

 

            “Smallpox, which was introduced into the mainland of the Americas in the early part of the sixteenth century, not only decimated the native population for four centuries, but so demoralized the tribes through the terror it spread among them that it has been considered by many authorities to have been an important factor in their comparatively easy subjugation by the whites. Before the advent of the white man, tribal warfare and, at times, famine made the chief inroads on the native population, but during the period of exploration and settlement the diseases of the white man, new to the native, caused terrific havoc…” (Wanger and Stearn, 1945, pg. 13).

 

Thousands died from the smallpox epidemic at the L’Arbre Croche settlement in 1763 as a result of an act of genocide conducted by General Amherst and the men under his command. The medicine men and women did not know how to treat the foreign disease that had taken the lives of so many of their people. They asked some of the white settlers about what could be happening to them.  Father du Jaunay informed the Odawa people that he thought it was smallpox and they needed to protect themselves from spreading the disease any further. The Odawa Indians who had already contracted the disease were required to bury the people who died from the disease. The sick were sequestered in longhouses and kept away from the healthy people at the settlement. The Odawa people buried many of their dead family members and friends in shallow graves along the water front.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Three

The Rivals

Fur Trading Exploitation and Colonization

 

 

Fur trading commerce served as the first massive European effort to exploit Native Americans and colonize their land holdings while subjecting them to starvation, disease, alcoholism and other genocidal acts. The forest Indians who lived around the Great Lakes and Canada became heavily dependent on the fur trade. The main goal of early tribal communities, before the onslaught of European interlopers, was survival, often in environments which consisted of harsh climate. Legends foretell how the Indian people and animals had a cohesive relationship based on mutual respect until the white men descended in droves. After the European invasion, wild game became over hunted which threatened the Native Americans’ survival and destroyed the relationship between Native Americans and animals, a relationship based on reciprocity and respect. Native Americans only hunted when it was necessary before the invasion of white settlers. Europeans also introduced murder, betrayal, and everything evil that existed in white society to the Native Americans as a result of the fur trading exploitation and colonization. 

Commercial fur trade began with early contact between the indigenous population and the European fishermen. While the fishermen netted cod in Newfoundland and Quebec, Native Americans traded mink and other small animal pelts for knives, other iron products and cloth with the fishermen. The trade, haphazard at best, continued until around the middle to late sixteenth century when the wearing of beaver hats became the new fashion trend for Europeans in Europe. The earliest French explorer to work with Native Americans regarding fur trading was Jacques Cartier in the 1530s. He traveled the St. Lawrence River and Gulf of St. Lawrence areas. During the 1580s, French trading companies were set up in the region of what was later referred to as New France. The demand for beaver furs led to extensive trapping of the furry animals by Native Americans during the harshness of northern winters when the fur was the thickest. From 1634 to 1850 the fur trade was a prominent business and control of such trade started with the French, British and Scotts. Many battles were fought over the fur-trading business, especially when the animals sought became vastly depleted in specific locations (Conlan, 1994).

Moving from a bartering system to a market economy was difficult for the Native American people. Many were confused about this concept. Bartering was something they practiced and was a form of transaction in which goods or services were exchanged for other goods or services without mediums of exchange such as money. Native Americans believed in the concept of reciprocity.

 

The Indian people demanded to trade for items such as guns and unfortunately rum and brandy. Liquor became one of the main trade items used to numb the pain. The European invasion caused a lot of stress ad anguish for the Native Americans. Many of the fur traders were of a rough sort, drank plenty and defied the laws of a civil society. Others delved into the wilderness to barter with the Indian people, adopt their ways and marry Native American women. Many Europeans wanted a piece of the lucrative market while fur trading ended up being the only source of income for the Native Americans.

They did not at first perceive trade as posing any danger to their independence and means of self-sufficiency. However, they became reliant on trade with the Europeans. The fur trade industry was also dependent on the labor provided by the Indian people. Before the introduction of the fur trade, the Indian people used approximately 30 beavers a year for food and robes. A vast amount of time was spent hunting, and preparing pelts to be traded. The fur trade led to further exploration of the Great Lakes region which enhanced animosity between France and Britain (Johnston, 1971).

 

French frontiersmen were referred to as coureurs de bois or forest runners. Another name given to these brave men was voyageurs who were referred to as canoeists or travelers. The reduction of the beaver population forced the coureurs de bois to go further into the interior of Canada. These canoeists wore brightly woven sashes, deer-skin leggings, and moccasins. On colder days they wore a capote or blanket coat. They were readily recognizable and stood apart from other men. Voyageurs and coureurs de bois were short and wiry, on average five-foot-six in height.  Despite their smaller stature, they were amazingly strong and had inexhaustible stamina. Trading partnerships with the native peoples expanded and it became possible to stay through the winter. Owners of the fur trade companies and their employees who lived in the interior of Canada all year became known as “winterers.”

These rugged individuals had to withstand the elements of harsh weather, and life-threatening obstacles such as hostile Indians, competing fur-traders, starvation and wild animals. Sometimes they had to portage their canoes, supplies, and packs of fur. They were expected to carry a pack of furs that weighed up to 90 pounds sometimes for great distances. Their daily routines consisted of paddling, hauling, and portaging for approximately 16 hours and then they would collapse from exhaustion. At night they slept by some small or large body of water with a gun by their side. Their coverings would be a blanket and perhaps some brush to add cushion to the hard surface of the ground. Samuel de Champlain relied on these durable men to help him with his fur trading business ventures (Johnston, 1971).    

            Indigenous warriors watched as Champlain and eight other men docked on Sunday, July 3, 1608 in Canada. They survived the first winter and a treaty between the North American Indians and French provide unity. Champlain and his comrades joined forces to defeat Iroquois intruders in a battle near Lake Champlain. A repeat victory in 1610 sealed the relationship with allied tribes. The fur trade between the French and Indians increased considerably. The fur trade took a turn for the worse in 1611. France’s sponsorship of New France colony ceased. Champlain did not give up. He persuaded Louis XIII to become involved and as a result the king made Champlain the commandant of New France.

Champlain embarked to the Ottawa River to restore the fur trade and then he traveled to Lake Huron where the Indian chiefs convinced him to lead a war party against a village south of Lake Ontario. He ended up suffering from serious wounds and spent the winter at the Huron-Algonquin warriors’ encampment. Champlain’s authority over New France was reaffirmed in 1620, but the king did not want him to conduct further exploration. He was to stay put and handle administrative tasks (Ritchie, N.D.).

 

            Money was to be made in the fur trade. Adult beavers averaged about 50 pounds, were plentiful (about 60 million) and somewhat easy to catch. The fabric produced by the beaver pelts provided warmth and beauty and was in great demand by European men and women of the upper classes. Fur coats, muffs, wraps, gloves, fur-trimmed garments and beaver hats (most prominent item) served the fashion sense of the time. Europeans wanted beaver hats and such while tribal people wanted iron pots and tools. These demands fostered the fur trade.

            The fur trade between Native Americans and Europeans thrived, especially concerning beaver. Beaver fur served as the most important animal fur in Canadian history because it consisted of long barbs at the tip of each strand of fur in the soft underside which made it ideal for felt. The making of felt transferred the animal fur into a soft, pliable, water-resistant material which was sought after to wear in cold and wet weather by the well to do Europeans (Wilson, 2013).

           

            Battles between many of the Northern Indians and Iroquois continued. The weapons of the Indians consisted of clubs, stone axes and bows and arrows before the arrival of the European. Tomahawks came later after contact with the Europeans. Some of the warriors wore wicker and slat armor covered rawhide to protect themselves from bone and stone pointed arrows which did not work well to shield from bullets and balls from muzzle-loading guns.

            Neither the European or Native American sides had efficient military strategies and organization. Uncooperating warriors and soldiers fled from conflict whenever they felt compelled to leave battles. No penalty transpired as a result of their insolence. They only lost some public prestige. Defense of their encampments was considered loose to non-existent. Close contests may have continued indefinitely if the Iroquois had not received more firearms and ammunition from the British and Dutch than the Hurons received from the French fur traders near the lower St. Lawrence River.

            If the two parties (Europeans and Native Americans) wanted furs, they discovered they had to fight. The Iroquois did not have kind regard for any white people including the British but decided to pick sides with the British when the French and English fought, as they frequently did (Wilson, 2013).

 

            The Jesuits arrived at New France in 1625 and followed the fur traders wherever they went. They wanted to save the Indian people by converting them to Christianity and the fur traders wanted to obtain furs from them at the smallest cost possible. The fur traders were considered a bad influence on the naive tribal people because many Indian people fell to the abyss of alcohol consumption which damaged their relationships and their health. The influence of alcohol had served as a detriment for Native Americans throughout history because they used liquor to deaden the pain of losing their culture, their land and their tribal communities (Conlan,1994).

 

            The French government left colonizing to the fur traders. The traders concentrated on the financial returns in furs and farming which left little time or effort to help the colony expand into a growing community. Although Quebec was founded in 1608, it remained a struggling little fur trading post with a few individuals residing on the premises. Colonization lagged behind because unlike England, France sent only a few settlers to Canada. French fur traders made it a habit to marry Indian women to expand their knowledge about important information such as survival in the harsh climate and cement their associations with Indian communities.

In 1627, Cardinal Richelieu, who was an advisor to Louis XIII, formed the Company of One Hundred Associates at New France.  One of the goals of this company was to gather investors to provide an income for New France by promising land parcels. French aspirations in this newly founded territory were the expansion of the mercantile and agriculture business. Another mission of the company was to expand the fur trade with the Indians. New France encompassed what is present-day Quebec, Nova Scotia and another large section of the eastern portion of Canada. However, Richelieu’s grand plan encompassed all lands between present-day Florida and the Arctic Circle. The Company of One Hundred Associates was given the cartel in trade except in the cod and whaling industry, which was awarded to other European countries (Wilson, 2013).

To help expand the French territories, Champlain mentored Entienne Brule, and sent him to explore much of the region around the St. Lawrence River and beyond.  Brule was credited with being one of the first Europeans to discover the area referred to as Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan. He also befriended some of the members of the Huron tribe, learned their language and served as an interpreter during trading expeditions between the French and Huron Indians. Brule went against his country in 1629 when he guided an English military group down the St. Lawrence River and aided their successful takeover of Quebec City. Champlain was angry and wanted Brule punished for his actions. Brule continued to live with the Huron Indians hiding from retribution until he was captured by the Seneca Iroquois in battle. When he returned home to the Hurons, they didn’t believe his story and murdered him.

In 1628, England and France were at war again. Due to the exhaustion of their food and gun powder supply, Champlain had to surrender the fort. However, he did not abandon his colony. Champlain was taken prisoner by the British. He argued that the surrender occurred after the end of the war. The colony was restored to France. In 1633, he returned to Quebec with  more settlers. Champlain rebuilt the fort he originally built 25 years earlier (Wilson, 2013).

                       

Additional explorers such as Chouart, Nicolet, Groseilliers, Radisson and La Salle opened the way in Canada and Michigan for other explorers and fur trade entrepreneurs. Chouart and Groseilliers spent the winter of 1659-60 at Sault Ste. Marie in the current state of Michigan (Johnston, 1971). In October of 1666, Groseilliers and Radisson (brothers-in-law) informed King Charles II of England about the large amount of beaver west of New France. They were asked why they did not inform King Louis XIV of France and they told him they informed the New France’s governor, Pierre de Boyer D’Argenson, and instead of being rewarded they were arrested and fined for traveling without the governor’s permission and abandoning their post. After they served their sentences, they travelled to New England. English officers encouraged them to take their information to Charles II.

Charles II backed their expedition when they journeyed to Hudson Bay in northern Canada in 1668. Grosseilliers and Radisson sailed in two ships. Grosseilliers made it to James Bay’s southern shores but Radission’s ship was damaged by a storm and he had to head back to England. Grosseilliers traded with the Cree and he confirmed that beaver was plentiful. This confirmation later led to the establishment of the Hudson Bay Company’s charter. In addition to the discovery of beaver, the king and other investors were hopeful they would discover other natural resources such as gold and silver. Investors and explorers also sought the discovery of the Northwest Passage. On May 2, 1670, the British imperial ventured to establish a legal monopoly concerning the fur trade and wanted to prevent others from doing the same (Gismondi, 2020).

A charter, granted by the British Crown, formed the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1670. The company operated from posts along the coast of Hudson Bay for approximately 100 years. During the booming fur trading years, the demand for fur hats increased the pressure for fur traders to up their game.

            “The main cause of the rising beaver pelt prices in England and France was the increasing demand for hats made from beaver pelts, which included hats made exclusively with beaver wool and referred to as ‘beaver hat,’ and those hats containing a combination of beaver and a lower cost wool, such as rabbit. These were called the ‘felt hat.’ Unfortunately, aggregate consumption series for the eighteenth century for Europe are not available. We do, however, have Gregory King’s contemporary work for England which provides a good starting point… King calculated that consumption of all types of hats was 3.3 million, or nearly one hat per person. King also included a second category, caps of all sorts, for which he estimated consumption at 1.6 million” (Harte, 1991, pg. 293). The potential market as early as 1700 for England alone was nearly 5 million per year which was dependent on population growth (Carlos and Lewis, 2008).

To get an idea of how much beaver pelts were worth at the trading posts, in 1784 the Hudson Bay Company (HBC) prepared a “Table of Equivalents” which listed the number of beavers required to trade for various items. Throughout history prices have gone up, not down, for items purchased in stores. It would be safe to note that it would have taken many more beavers to get the same wares during the early 1800s. In 1784, the following table was used to place a value on specific items, a concept that was foreign to the Indian people.

 

·         1 Beaver = 9 Arrow Heads

·         1 Beaver = 1 yard of cloth

·         4 Beavers = 1 gallon of brandy

·         11 Beavers = 1 gun

·         1 Beaver = ¾ pounds of beads

(Brazer, 1993)

 

            Traders waited for the Indian trappers and their middlemen to bring them furs which were exchanged for goods. The furs were then transferred to Europe. The middle men, who collected the furs from the Native Americans and brought them to the European traders, were linked to the spread of deadly diseases because of their connection to the European settlers. Europeans introduced an advanced spread of diseases such as smallpox and tuberculosis. Native Americans did not immunity to the various diseases. Disease, the politics of starvation (overhunting of game and other attempts), and the loss of traditional Native American cultures led to the demise of almost entirely to entirely decimated communities. For example, in Saskatchewan disease annihilated the people of Basquia and Pegogamaw Cree. Elders, who held important positions of carrying on the traditional knowledge were especially susceptible to diseases (Daschuk, 2013).

 

During the middle of June in 1671 a Pageant was held in Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan by French dignitaries. Simon Francois Daumont, Sieur de St. Lusson, coordinated the expedition to the Jesuit mission. Nicolas Perrot from Wisconsin and Louis Jolliet served instrumentally in the undertaking of the event. Northern tribes of the upper Great Lakes attended: Menominee, Potawotami, and Sauk Indians. Sieur de Lusson declared the annexation of the region and all lands not discovered in the name of the “Most High, Most Mighty and Most Redoubtable Monarch Louis the XIV of the Name, Most Christian King of France and Navarre” (Kellogg, 1917, para. 3). The French King and his contemporaries felt urged to come forward and claim the vast continent in the name of France after hearing about the British efforts concerning the fur trading business. Annexation papers were completed and signed by all the white men in attendance. (Kellogg, 1917). 

             From 1670 to 1870, the British sought after marriages of the fur traders to Native American women. This practice aided the trader’s knowledge of Indian life and cemented the traders’ association with Native American communities. By the end of the 18^th century, the practice of HBC employees marrying Indian women was widely practiced. Some British traders treated their Indigenous wives with the utmost respect while others were cruel. The crown did not protect the tribal women after their British spouses’ career in HBC ended. They were left to take care of themselves when their spouses returned to England. They could not remain on Rupert’s Land (Wilson, 2013).

 

“Rupert’s Land was a vast territory of northern wilderness. It represented a third of what is now Canada. From 1670 to 1870, it was the exclusive commercial domain of the Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) and the primary trapping grounds of the fur trade. The territory was named after Prince Rupert, the HBC’s first governor. Three years after Confederation, the Government of Canada acquired Rupert’s Land from the HBC for $1.5-million. It is the largest real estate transaction (by land area) in the country’s history. The purchase of Rupert’s Land transformed Canada geographically. It changed from a modest country in the northeast of the continent into an expansive one that reached across North America. Rupert’s Land was eventually divided among Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and the Northwest Territories” (Andrew, 2019, para. 1).

 

Racist attitudes towards the Indian people gained momentum during the mid-1800s. HBC officials became more comfortable with living in the region and relied less on the Native American’s knowledge. Simpson, a British born settler decided Indigenous people needed to be ruled with an iron fist and be in complete subordination. He did father children with Indigenous women. However, he married his British-born cousin, Francis in 1830. Simpson’s beliefs and actions started the beginning of the end of the marrying Native American women. The exploitation of Indian people continued through acts of the takeover of Native American land through various treaties. Many Native American nations became angered towards HBC employees and officials. In 1870, Canada purchased Rupert’s Land from HBC. This purchase represented the end of HBC and the beginning of modern-day Canada (Wilson, 2013).

 

            The HBC was not without its competition. The fur trade served as an essential economic component for Canada. The fall of New France in 1763 led French fur traders to work with British and Anglo-American businessmen stationed in Montreal. A number of small trading companies were established. They were conducting a thriving trade business with the Indian people in the upper Great Lakes area and adjoining regions to the west. In an attempt to control the competition and raise capital, the small companies joined together to form the North West Company (NWC) on April 24^, 1779.

The Frobisher brothers, Joseph and Benjamin, and Simon McTavish turned a company that was not on solid ground into a strong coalition. The firm of Gregory, McLeod and Company joined the coalition and by 1795 the North West Company had control of almost 80% of the northern fur trade. HBC was the company’s chief rival. The salt-water port at the middle of the northern continent gave HBC the advantage over the Montreal based company. The difficulty involved the long overland journey from Montreal to the Northwest. It took approximately six additional months to complete the transfer of product from Montreal to Europe than it did for HBC. Various routes to quicken the process were explored to no avail.

Competition increased between HBC and NWC and the animosity reached a new level of intensity in 1812. HBC settled a group of Scottish farmers at Red River (currently Manitoba area). The newly establish colony came under bitter opposition from the Indigenous people and the Metis (half Native American and half European) whose homeland they took over. The tension between the two companies resulted in the Battle of Seven Oaks in 1816 ended with the death of 21 settlers by Metis hunters who worked for NWC. An angered Lord Selkirk, captured Fort William which led to a lot of violence and legal fees which alarmed the HBC and NWC. After years of feuding and the depletion of NWC’s resources, NWC merged with HBC in 1821 (Morrison, 2015). Before the merge of both companies, they feared the encroachment of the Americans and continued to fear Americans after the merger.

 

            John Jacob Astor established the American Fur Company in 1808 and sought to achieve dominance over the Fur trade of the northern United States. He saw the competition grow between the Canadian monopolies. The aforementioned companies encouraged traders from the St. Lawrence River to expand their business to encompass their territory below the Canadian border.

            During Lewis and Clark exploration between 2805 and 2806, they discovered a portage from the upper Missouri to the waters of the Columbia. Lewis informed President Jefferson about the upper Missouri area which “is richer in Beaver and otter than any other country on earth” (Lavender 1966, para. 4).  Jefferson commended Astor concerning his business plans but Astor felt he would not receive federal support. National sovereignty had not been achieved for Oregon. Astor worried about the murderous competition of the North West Company when he witnessed their ruthlessness beyond the Rockies against other fur companies.

            The Napoleonic Wars reduced the price of deer, muskrat, and raccoon pelts while the cost of shipping necessary trade items rose substantially. The American government tried to undermine the friendship between the British fur traders with the Indians. Canadian traders supplied more alcohol to the Native Americans to increase the amount of fur skins obtained from them which included furs promised to other winterers. At the same time, Tecumseh’s confederation kept many Native American hunters from their hunting grounds. Many circumstances were getting in the way of Astor accomplishing his goal of starting a successful fur company (Lavender, 1966).

            In 1810 Astor established the Pacific Fur Company as a secondary company to profit from the fur trade with China. The Astoria post, located at the mouth of the Columbia River in the Oregon Territory, was vanquished during the war of 1812 which ended the Pacific Northwest company (The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica, 2020.). Astor, forced to sell the fur company to the British, established the Southwest Fur Company which joined business ventures with his American Fur Company. The Southwest Fur Company, American Fur Company and the Michilimackinac Company (a north Michigan company) served as partners and joint stockholders.

            Astor attempted to buy into the Missouri Fur Company of Manuel Lisa. The war interfered with the transaction but this worked to Astor’s advantage. By 1817, Astor bought out his partners and mastered control of the Mississippi Valley posts. The Southwest Fur Company served as the Northern Department of the American Fur Company. The American Fur Company took over the Rocky Mountain Fur Company. The introduction of the steamboats significantly increased the trade traffic. Astor managed to reach conglomerate status with the fur trade in the United States.

A distinctive characteristic of fur trading companies was their demonstration of lawlessness, a lack of moral codes which included arrogance that led to ignoring regulations because they were considered inconvenient. Company administrative managers did not know about the misconduct of their traders and winterers. They did not pay attention to prohibitions against trapping on Indian lands. The employment of foreign boatmen, permitted by law, gave Astor and Stone (another fur trading company owner) a loophole in employing foreign winterers and on their financial records they were referred to as boatmen. Another infraction involved liquor. More furs were obtained from the Indian men by the use of liquor. The company management did not authorize the use of liquor but again the administration, quite unaware of the misconduct, did not catch the infractions. However, their employees, ordered to use sharp trading techniques to obtain the product and profits, utilized whatever methods that would give them the highest return. Native Americans paid dearly as a result of their business practices.

            The days of the booming fur trade were coming to an end. Astor sold the American Fur Company at a time when he made profits and dividends of over $1 million. He was the first millionaire in the United States. Crooks and his associates centered the company’s operations to the area of Detroit, the Ohio River, and the Red River of the North. They operated vessels on the Great Lakes and fisheries were established. The American Fur Trading Company failed in 1842 and was completely dissolved in 1845 (Berry, 1961). They also tapped into the indigenous fish supply.    

             

The fur-trading business ended up being catastrophic for the Indian people. Not only was the beaver population depleted, the population of the native people was decreased considerably by the ravages of traders’ diseases to which they had no immunity. Smallpox was the number one killer, with measles, scarlet fever, diphtheria, typhus, whooping cough, and influenza following suit. The introduction of alcohol as a bargaining tool was devastating to the tribal communities. To make matters and even more confusing, European men married Indian women, which created a large number of “mixed-bloods” or “half-breeds.” These individuals did not belong fully in any distinct camp, European or Native American. Also, the fur trade created an upheaval of tribal communities as they fought one another and joined forces with European allies to gain control of land bases and its resources (Johnson, 1971).  They became dependent on fur trading to support their communities. Fur trading greatly altered the lives of the Native Americans as a result of the onslaught of a multitude of Europeans invading their land to satisfy the whims of the Europeans.

The stories of the Native American people, who turned their lives over to enterprises such as the American Fur Company and Hudson Bay Company, were filled with financial loss and other hardships. Governmental officials joined in the effort of eradicating the “Indian Problem.” To appease the Americans, Jefferson decided to set up the Indian people to turn over their land holdings by using a market economy. More and more white settlers were moving to this country and used more of the land’s rich resources. Trading posts were put up in various locations which enticed the Indian people to get their needs met and at the same time accumulate debt of which they had no means of paying back. They ended up giving up large portions of the land they lived on. The Native Americans faced the likelihood of starving if they did not depend on the trading posts for food because they were either depressed, saddled with alcoholism and/or the wild game they relied on for food was over hunted by the white settlers. They were in a dire situation due to the onslaught of Anglo-invaders (Ambrose, 1996).