Total control of the Indian
children’s education was viewed as the most feasible option to achieve encompassing
assimilation and the adaptation of a perceived “civilized” lifestyle for
Native Americans. The govern-mental officials believed the children’s
separation from their families would reduce their families’ influence and
further the assimilation process. Some Indian people managed to survive with
little to no repercussions. For the majority of Indian people, the boarding
school initiative made more of a negative impact than all other efforts to
destroy the Indian people either intentionally or unintentionally, including
armed forces, starvation, disease, loss of land, and Christianity.
The
outcome of this legislation was a vulnerable population laced with disease,
death, poverty, and other social ills, such as rates of domestic violence,
alcoholism, child abuse and neglect higher than any other sectors of the
population.
[i] Ongoing
cultural oppression, health dis-parities and a lack of access to services and
economic opportunity coupled with chronic poverty, have depleted hope for many
tribal families. The cumulative effects of chronic stress and unresolved
historical trauma have led to an increased risk of developing psychological and
behavioral disorders.
[ii] The
negative impact of the enforced boarding school legislation is still resonating
with many Native American families today.
The concept of
the boarding school initiative began in 1875 when Richard Henry Pratt was given
responsibility of 72 Indian men charged with murder and rapine (the act of
seizing property by force) at Fort Marion in St. Augustine, Florida. During
their stay, these prisoners served as laborers to offset the cost of running
the prison. They performed cleaning and maintenance duties. Pratt rehabilitated
these men. They adopted the appearance and characteristics of the Euro-American
population. These same Indian men were later placed in jobs without guards.
Following Pratt’s efforts to rehabilitate the Indian men, the Carlisle Indian
Boarding School was established by Pratt with support of the federal government
in 1879. The boarding schools were fashioned after the same rehabilitative
principles as the prison program, which included the school attendants serving
as laborers to offset costs.
[iii]
Two boarding
schools and one orphanage opened in Michigan. The Catholic Church opened the
orphanage in Baraga in 1887, and Indian children were the primary occupants. The
Holy Childhood Boarding School in Harbor Springs opened in 1889. The federal
government opened the boarding school in Mt. Pleasant in 1893. Numerous other
boarding schools opened in the United States and the Canadian government
followed suit, modeling the residential schools after the American boarding
schools.
Boarding
schools were run like military camps. Indian children were stringently taught
how to follow orders. The children had to fall into formation, march in a
straight line, and oftentimes wore military clothing and shoes. During the
weekdays, the children attended school sessions. They were taught English,
math, history, and geography, usually by Euro-American teachers. Some of the
teachers tried to be kind and helpful, but many were cruel.
On average,
only a few hours a day were spent in the classroom, and the other portion was
spent undertaking assigned tasks. The children received minimal care and
education. Students constituted the majority of the labor pool and did most of
the meal preparation, building repairs, gardening, caring for livestock, and
cleaning.
Learning how
to accomplish these tasks would help prepare them for adulthood in the white
man’s world, because the only viable future was a white future. Girls were
prepared to work as servants or to become home-makers. Boys were trained in the
areas of gardening, repair and maintenance of homes and farms, the running of
farms, printing presses, and the building of houses and furniture. Many of the
children participated in an outing program in which they were placed in
Euro-American homes and expected to do various chores for their room and board.
They were forced to change the way they looked and forget their language,
customs, and religion. Their loss of identity formed mixed messages about their
heritage and about themselves, resulting in contempt for those in power as well
as their parents and elders.
It was a common
practice to give the Indian children English names when they attended the
boarding schools. In the Native American tribal way of life, one was not
permitted to own anything that was provided to them by the Creator. The land,
food and other necessities were bestowed to them to use and must be honored.
The only thing that could be owned was their given names. Only one person in a village
could have a specific name, and this name was derived by spiritual means such
as visions, dreams and naming ceremonies. Names provided their identity
throughout their lifetime. When English names were given to the children in the
boarding schools as a part of the assimilation process and the loss of their
given names led to identity confusion.
Children who
attended the boarding schools suffered from various types of abuse. Concerning
sexual abuse, one woman reported she spent years in therapy until she finally
grasped the fact she had been a victim. The shame and guilt she experienced as
a result of the sexual abuse she was forced to endure at the hands of a priest
at the Holy Childhood Boarding School caused her chronic emotional stress into
adulthood.
Nuns would
maintain relationships with young boys and these young boys would become
confidants for these women. Mentally healthy women in their 30s or 40s do not
fall in love with boys who are 10, 11 or 12 years of age.
Pedophiles
work in a way that does not permit children to refuse. It is cunning, measured,
and done under the pretext of fondness. These children were used as sexual
outlets. Once the sexually deviant person tired of the current victim, they
dumped them and preyed on other unsuspecting children. Victims often felt
abandoned. Children could not escape from their perpetrators. They had no one
to turn to and they were held captive because these institutions became their
prison.
[iv]
Another report
involved nuns at the Holy Childhood Boarding School who began their seduction
by kissing the younger boys good night. One of the abusive nuns was in her 20s,
rather plain and chubby. The favored boys would get kissed on the lips and she
would tickle them. One of the people who
attended the school stated that a few years went by for him until the kisses
started getting longer and longer, and then he was taken to her bedroom. The
boys were not expected to perform sexual acts until they were approximately 12
years of age.
One day, after
aforementioned person was pulled off the playground and forced to perform
sexual acts, he and a pedophile nun were caught in a compromising position by
other nuns, yet the perpetrator did not receive any retribution.
[v] The children were habitually exposed to
“institutionalized pedophilia” and “sexual terrorism.” The pedophiles included,
but were not limited to, priests, nuns, and Protestant clergy.
The religious
instruction that was provided added to the confusion and degradation of many Indian
children. Oftentimes, they were abused in various ways by the very same people
who were providing religious instruction. Children who demonstrated resistance
to the teaching practices and the regimented authority were subjected to
humiliation and harsh punishments. They suffered whippings and unusual torture
such as standing on their tiptoes with arms outstretched while their hands were
hit with wooden boards and rulers. The treatment of boys was typically more
severe than that of girls. Ruthless punishment occurred when children tried to
run away, although this did not deter many from attempting to do so.
Former
students who attended the Holy Childhood Boarding School reported about some of
the harsh treatments that occurred at that school. An excessive amount of
emotional abuse was inflicted on these children. Jennifer was beaten with a
rubber hose when she wet the bed or was forced to wear the urine-soaked sheets
in front of her peers. Tim reported that he was called a “dirty savage” by
staff at the Holy Childhood, which led to problems concerning the understanding
of his own identity and as a result he struggled with self-esteem issues. Kent witnessed
children at the Holy Childhood who were beaten if they spoke their native
language.
When the
children first arrived at the school, they felt lonely and isolated and as a
result many suffered from homesickness. Most children who attended these
institutions were separated from their family before they were developmentally
mature. The boarding schools were often one hour or further from the children’s
homes. Before 1957, Indian children who lived in St. Ignace, Michigan had to be
taken across Lake Huron on a barge and then transported by car to Harbor
Springs, Michigan. The Mackinac Bridge was built in 1957, which eliminated the
use of the barge system. The expense of travel was more than most Indian
families could afford, which deterred them from visiting their children. In
1924, the Native American per capita annual income was approximately $81.
[vi]
Prior to the
1920s, boarding school officials would have to seek preapproval from the local
reservation superintendent or an Indian agent before permission could be
granted for children to go home, even for severe hardship, such as deaths in
the family and sick relatives. Indian
parents learned to get around these sanctions by stating that their children
were needed to assist with farming. Since farming was a part of the
assimilation process, it served as a more worthy excuse. When John Collier
filled the position as Commissioner of Indian Affairs in 1933, these policies
took a turn for the better. Students
were permitted to go home for the summer months and usually for family
hardships.
Indian
children developed alliances with each other and looked after one another while
attending these institutions. Many of the children had never met Indian people
from other tribes. They also practiced pan-Indianism, which involved the
learning and adopting of portions of languages and cultures from other tribal
communities. Friendships were often formed, some lasting their lifetimes. They
made fun of the teachers and gave them names the students felt best suited
their personalities. On occasion, they
snuck out at night together and did things they knew were forbidden activities,
such as breaking into buildings on and off school property. Sports, choirs, bands, and dances were other
ways long lasting friendships were developed and ways in which the children
maintained their sanity. Sharing the common experience of attending boarding
schools was another way in which life long bonds were established.
When a child
was sent to bed without a meal, the other children would often sneak them food.
The children experienced what could be referred to as slow, agonizing
starvation. School officials were allotted very limited funding, which served
as a strong indication of the lack of importance concerning Indian children.
During the 1920s,
the Meriam report revealed the lack of fresh food and milk for boarding school
residents in the United States. This report involved an investigation
concerning failed U.S. Indian policies in various areas such as education. The average
per capita food allowance was 11 cents per day. As a result, students suffered
from malnutrition because of the shortage of food. The Meriam report suggested
35 cents per day for each student. This would ensure proper nutrition and adequate
food supply.
The recommendations
put forth by those who conducted the Meriam study were often ignored. On
another note, during the time the Meriam team was observing some of the
boarding schools, they made notice of the extreme levels of quietness. Episodes
of intermingling and comfortable conversations were non-existent.
[vii]
Disease also
ran rampant in the boarding schools with tuberculosis being one of the most
serious. Measles, mumps, influenza, and trachoma, a disease that inflicted the
eyes, were other health maladies. Often, the parents were not informed about
their children’s illnesses. Children with these diseases and healthy students
were kept together at the schools. Overcrowding was another issue. These
schools were often filled to capacity and beyond. Due to the lack of medical
services and poor diets, the children often died as a result of contracting
diseases.
Neglect is
another form of oppression in which a person is deprived of love, care, nurturance,
support, or other pertinent assistance, as well as basic material needs such as
food, shelter, and clothing. The children were provided shelter and clothing;
however, their other needs were grossly neglected. They often experienced
failure to thrive. As a result, many Indian people associated these
institutions with death and despair.
The boarding
school experience did prepare children to communicate with the English-speaking
popu-lation. A high percentage of the attendees had a difficult time returning
to their home of origin. Their difficulty of fitting in with their families was
partially due to the biased instruction they received at the school, as well as
the lack of bonding with their families because of their long absences. Much of
the native language was lost, along with many of the traditional customs. Many
boarding school attendees did not return to the tribal communities.
A vast number
of Indian children were released from the boarding schools when they were ready
to attend high school. After spending years of following the stringent rules at
the schools, they had to try and fit in with their families and the outside
world. They were not taught how to think for themselves.
Teenagers are
known to have difficulty making smart choices. During the late teens, the brain
begins to develop its prefrontal cortex and inferior cortex, the areas that
supervise judgment and self-control. This process is not completed until the
mid-twenties. As a result, teenagers and young adults are subject to making bad
judgments, lack inhibitory control, and experience a likelihood of developing
addictive behaviors. These susceptibilities can be lessened if they receive
caring support.
Many of the
teenagers who left these institutions were not welcomed by their families. The
years of separation and the vast differences these attendees had with their
families caused them to feel alienated and the needed support and guidance was
nonexistent. A large number of Native American people are living with regrets
that resulted from making poor choices when they were teenagers and young
adults. Many Indian people married individuals who mirrored the caregivers at
these institutions and ended up in loveless relationships and/or divorce. Again,
the negative impact of these harsh environments resonates throughout tribal
communities today.
Many of these
students joined the white population and were acculturated into their way of
life. They worked at jobs on farms or in towns. Some moved to the urban areas
and others were hired by the boarding schools as teachers, cooks, and
caretakers. Some of the students were grateful for learning trades taught at
the schools. Jeff, a former student who attended the federal boarding school in
Mt. Pleasant, Michigan, learned how to be barber while he was attending the
school, which brought him money when he was in the armed service. He was hired
by his peers to cut their hair while he served his country. The school gave him
the confidence to tackle things such as his former job as a meteorologist,
which was also a part of his career path. Jeff
still carried resentments towards his father for letting him down as a child,
because his father had a drinking problem. Jeff felt his father was not a good
provider. The family went without their basic needs being met such as food and
adequate housing. His family was forced to move to the reservation and the
housing was substandard.
Jeff did not
like the “outing program,” as he re-ferred to it. The outing program associated
with the federal boarding school in Mt. Pleasant involved being forced to live
with a family and work for them to earn his room and board after he left the
school during his early teenage years. Jeff wanted to go to school instead of
being forced to work. Jeff believed the school afforded better housing, regular
meals, and future job opportunities.
[i] Child,
B. (2000). Boarding School Seasons:
American Indian Families, 1900-1940. Nebraska: University of Nebraska
Press, 43.
[ii]
Reyhner, J. and Eder, J. (2004). American Indian Education: A History. Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press,
134-140.
[iii]
Archuleta, M. Child, B., and Lomawaima, T. (2000). Away
from Home: American Boarding School Experiences 1897-2000. Arizona: Heard Museum.
[iv]
Stanton, A. (July 7, 2008). Northern
Express. Unholy Childhood. Retrieved
on October 2, 2014 from http://www.northernexpress.com/editorial/features.asp?id=3240
[v]
Churchill, W. (2004). Kill the Indian,
Save the Man. California: City Lights Books, 62.
[vi] Child,
B. (2000). Boarding School Seasons:
American Indian Families, 1900-1940. Nebraska: University of Nebraska
Press, 45.
Chapter X: Life on the Rez
