Fur Trading Exploitation

 

“No tribe has the right to sell, even to each other, much

less to strangers… Sell a country? Why not sell the air,

the great sea, as well as the earth? Didn’t the Great

Spirit make them all for the use of his children?

-Tecumseh

Shawnee 

Fur trading greatly changed the lives of Native Americans by converting them from hunters and gatherers for their tribal communities to a dependence on fur trading commerce. The main goal of early tribal communities, before the onslaught of European interlopers, was survival often in environments which consisted of harsh climate during the winter months in Canada and northern North America. Before the extensive European invasion, the Indian people only hunted and gathered what they needed to support their communal village and did not over extend their hunting and gathering efforts. Legends foretell how the Indian people and animals had a cohesive relationship based on mutual respect until the white men descended in droves. Wild game became over hunted which threatened the Native Americans’ survival.

Commercial fur trade began with early contact between indigenous population and the European fishermen. The fishermen netted cod in Newfoundland and Quebec. Native Americans traded mink and other small animal pelts for knives, other iron products and cloth with the fishermen. The trade, haphazard at best, continued until around the middle to late sixteenth century when the wearing of beaver hats became the new fashion trend. The demand for beaver furs led to extensive trapping of the furry animals by Native Americans during the harshness of northern winters when the fur was the thickest. From 1634 to 1850 the Michigan fur trade was a prominent business and control of such trade started when the French and the British decided to take part in this profitable business venture. Many battles were fought over the fur-trading business, especially when the animals sought became vastly depleted in specific locations. At first the Indian people were duped into trading furs for mere trinkets and such. Then the Indian people demanded to trade for items such as guns and unfortunately rum and brandy. Liquor became one of the main trade items. Many of the fur traders were of a rough sort, drank plenty and defied the laws of a civil society. Others delved into the wilderness to barter with the Indian people, adopt their ways and marry Native American women. Many Europeans wanted a piece of the lucrative market while fur trading became the only source of income for the Native Americans.

The fur-trading business ended up being catastrophic for the Indian people. Not only was the beaver population depleted, the population of the native people was decreased considerably by the ravages of traders’ diseases to which they had no immunity. Smallpox was the number one killer, with measles, scarlet fever, diphtheria, typhus, whooping cough, and influenza following suit. The introduction of alcohol as a bargaining tool was devastating to the tribal communities. Also, the fur trade created an upheaval of tribal communities as they fought one another and joined forces with European allies to gain control of land bases and its resources (Johnson, 1971).  

 

The earliest French explorers to work with Native Americans regarding fur trading was Jacques Cartier in the 1530s. He traveled the St. Lawrence River and Gulf of St. Lawrence areas. During the 1580s, French trading companies were set up in the region of what was later referred to as New France. Additional explorers such as Chouart, Nicolet, Groseilliers, Radisson and La Salle opened the way in Canada and Michigan for other explorers and fur trade entrepreneurs. Chouart and Groseilliers spent the winter of 1659-60 at Sault Ste. Marie in the current state of Michigan (Johnston, 1971).

French frontiersmen were referred to as coureurs de bois or forest runners. Another name given to these brave men was voyageurs who happened to be canoeists or travelers. The reduction of the beaver population forced the coureurs de bois to go further into the interior of Canada. These canoeists wore brightly woven sashes, deer-skin leggings, and moccasins. On colder days they wore a capote or blanket coat. They were instantly recognizable and stood apart from other men. Voyageurs and coureurs de bois were short and wiry, on average five-foot-six in height. Despite their smaller stature, they were amazingly strong and had an inexhaustible amount of stamina. Samuel de Champlain relied on these brave men and the Indian men to help him with his business ventures which partially involved fur trading.

            Champlain founded the small village of Quebec with 28 men in 1608. In 1630, 103 colonists resided in this community and by 1640 the population had grown to 355.  Champlain was known as the “Father of New France” (Nies, 1996).

            A charter, granted by the British Crown, formed the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1670. The company operated from posts along the coast of Hudson Bay in Canada for approximately 100 years. The negotiation of the Jay’s Treaty in 1794, which defined the northern border, led to the establishment of the American Fur Company owned by John Jacob Astor. In 1816 an act of law was passed which granted only U.S. citizens the right to carry on the fur trade in “Indian Country” in the United States (Carlos and Lewis, 2008). During the booming fur trading years, the demand for fur hats increased the pressure for fur traders to up their game.

            “The main cause of the rising beaver pelt prices in England and France was the increasing demand for beaver hats, which included hats made exclusively with beaver wool and referred to as ‘beaver hat,’ and those hats containing a combination of beaver and a lower cost wool, such as rabbit. These were called ‘felt hat.’ Unfortunately, aggregate consumption series for the eighteenth century for Europe are not available. We do, however, have Gregory King’s contemporary work for England which provides a good starting point… King calculated that consumption of all types of hats was 3.3 million, or nearly one hat per person. King also included a second category, caps of all sorts, for which he estimated consumption at 1.6 million” (Harte, 1991, pg. 293). The potential market as early as 1700 for England alone was nearly 5 million per year dependent on population growth (Carlos and Lewis, 2008).

            Another involved party with the fur trade were the Jesuits, also referred to as the black robe priests. They did not endorse the use of alcohol as a trade item. Intoxicated Indians were unlikely candidates to be converted to Christianity. The Jesuits lobbied in Europe against the use of brandy and rum as trade commodities. Their lobbying efforts were generally unsuccessful. If French alcohol was prohibited, it would be substituted with alcoholic beverages supplied by British colonies.

            The Jesuits, followed the fur traders wherever they went. Both groups were interested in working with the Indian people. The Jesuits wanted to save the Indian people by converting them to Christianity and the fur traders wanted to obtain furs from them at the smallest cost possible. The fur traders were considered a bad influence on the naive tribal people. Many Indian people fell to the abyss of alcohol consumption which damaged their relationships and their health during the early fur trading era supported by uncaring fur traders who wanted to obtain furs as cheap as possible without concern about the damaging effects of alcohol. The influence of alcohol has served as a detriment for Native Americans throughout history to current times and served as a way of deadening the pain of losing their culture, their land and their tribal communities (Conlan,1994).

 

            Fur traders did not have it much better. The daily life of a fur trader was somewhat monotonous and often filled with hardships. Their food and dress, recreation, methods of trade, character, and relationships with the Indian people has served as a continuing point of interest. They had to be of a rugged sort, people who could withstand the elements of harsh weather, and life-threatening obstacles such as hostile Indians, competing fur-traders, starvation and wild animals. Sometimes they had to portage their canoes, supplies, and packs of fur. They were expected to carry a pack of furs that weighed up to 90 pounds sometimes for great distances.

            Their food, which was not of variety, consisted of pemmican, pea soup, wild rice and lyed-corn. To prepare the corn, the corn was boiled in strong lye, then the husk was removed, and the corn was washed and dried. It became soft and could be fried like rice. Pemmican was a dried meat, usually from deer, elk or bison. Later on, beef was used to make pemmican, also. Their daily routines consisted of paddling, hauling, and portaging for approximately 16 hours and then they would collapse from exhaustion. At night they slept by some small or large body of water with a gun by their side. Their coverings would be a blanket and perhaps some brush to add cushion to the hard surface of the ground (Johnston, 1971).

            What enticed these foreboding individuals into these dangerous hunting exploits? Was it the money, was it their relationship with the Indian people, or was it the sheer danger of it all? Men who could paddle, hunt, trap, and speak parts of the Indian tongue proved to be the heartiest of fur traders. These men were a combination of being somewhat civilized and part savage with the latter being the most prominent. 

             

The stories of many Native American people, who turned their lives over to enterprises such as the American Fur Company, were filled with financial loss and other hardships. Indian people were coerced into accumulating debt during President Jefferson’s time in office. Jefferson believed the country was run by the white people and during that time period the general population strived to rid the country of the “Indian problem.”

            To appease the Americans, Jefferson decided to set up the Indian people to turn over their land holdings by using a market economy. More and more white settlers were moving to this country and using more of the land’s rich resources. Trading posts were put up in various locations to entice the Indian people to get their needs met and at the same time accumulate debt of which they had no means of paying back. They ended up giving up large portions of the land they lived on. The Native Americans faced the likelihood of starving if they did not depend on the trading posts for food because they were either depressed, saddled with alcoholism and the wild game they relied on for food was over hunted by the white settlers. They were in a dire situation due to the onslaught of white settlers (Ambrose, 1996). 

 

            To get an idea of how much beaver pelts were worth at the trading posts, in 1784 the Hudson Bay Company prepared a “Table of Equivalents” which listed the number of beavers required to trade for various items. Throughout history prices have gone up, not down, for items purchased in stores. It would be safe to note that it would have taken many more beavers to get the same wares during the early 1800s. In 1784, the following table was used to place a value on specific items, a concept that was foreign to the Indian people.

 

·         1 Beaver = 9 Arrow Heads

·         1 Beaver = 1 yard of cloth

·         4 Beavers = 1 gallon of brandy

·         11 Beavers = 1 gun

·         1 Beaver = ¾ pounds of beads

(Brazer, 1993)

 

            Moving from a bartering system to a market economy was difficult for the Native American people. Many were confused about this concept. Bartering is a form of transaction in which goods or services were exchanged for other goods or services without mediums of exchange such as money. This form of exchange was practiced by the Native Americans and they believed in the concept of reciprocity. Trade was carried out in a respectful and fair manner.          The beaver they hunted and trapped for the Europeans provided sustenance for the people of their village. In the past they used all parts of the animals they hunted. For example, the animal intestines referred to as sinew served as the thread to sew hides together. Before the fur-trading days the Indian people would exchange furs for things such as cooking utensils, pots, pans, guns and alcoholic beverages. Brandy and rum were often the trade items of choice for the British and French. They would trade vast amounts of alcohol because it was regarded as a cheap commodity in exchange for furs.           

When the settlers wanted to take over the Native American homelands, Indian people did not know how to place a value on it. They did not know what a stream or a tract of forest was worth in terms of gunpowder, iron pots or cloth. They went along with the government treaty negotiators who wrote on paper what specific land holdings were valued. They did not understand how that could be determined, considering the change of seasons and the yield of the hunt. The traders often short changed the unsuspecting Indian people and to back up their claims they would show them a statement of accounts. These statements resembled a foreign language to them.

The Indian people felt confused, hungry and cold, and they were losing their homelands. Eventually, they realized they lost by playing by a corrupt set of rules. By the time they realized they were being cheated, it was too late. The beaver population was depleted by the white settlers as well as other wild game such as deer. To make matters even more confusing, mostly French fur traders, married Indian women which created a large number of “mixed-bloods” or “half-breeds.” Many of these individuals maintained their associations with the fur trade and tribal communities. The fur trading exploits led to many difficult problems from alcoholism to a loss of their cultural identity and home lands. They became dependent on fur trading to support their communities. Fur trading greatly altered the lives of the Native Americans as a result of the onslaught of many Europeans invading their land to satisfy the whims of the Europeans.

 

 

Henry Rowe Schoolcraft

 

“No person among us desires any other reward

for performing a brave and worthy action, but

the consciousness of having served his nation.”

-Joseph Brant (Thuyendanegea)

Mohawk

 

A storm brewed between the Odawa, Chippewa (formally referred to as Ojibwe until renamed by governmental officials) and U.S. government authorities. The ever-increasing number of white settlers and future entrepreneurs, had their eyes on the land that was currently in the hands of the Indian people. To top things off, the Indian’s way of life was viewed as being of a heathen nature so it would had been in their best interest for them to pick up a hoe and become farmers. Schoolcraft was a part of this campaign.

The United States government has had mechanisms in place empowering those in authority to have control over the actions and resources of the general population for centuries. Public laws become enforced legislation through the actions of opposing parties of a two-party system, divergent priorities, and confrontational approaches. Oftentimes, laws were not based on what was in the best interest of the people. “All for the public good” were the politicians’ claims in their effort to hide their and their supporters’ self-serving agendas.

            When Andrew Jackson was elected president of the United States, he was supported by the wealthiest men in the south. The land in which the Cherokee, Choctaw, and other tribes resided was targeted by wealthy entrepreneurs who wanted to expand their cotton plantations.  Jackson despised the Indian people. He openly rejected federal treaty obligations. Jackson pushed for the passing of the Indian Removal Act and served an Indian fighter.

            The Indian Removal Act gave the President the privilege of selecting the tribes to be relocated west of the Mississippi River from the states located in southeast portion of the country and provided the financing for their removal. Seeds of greed and hatred fueled these acts of genocide and discrimination and the joint collaboration of the wealthy business men falsely justified the takeover of the Indian people’s land (Oswalt, 1978).  

The act authorized the President to negotiate treaties in order to take over tribal lands in exchange for lands further west, west of the Mississippi River. Treaties were mechanisms put into place as a formalized way of securing land holdings for Euro-Americans which was taken from the Indian people. Treaties delineated the relationship between the United States government and Indian tribes. The treaties included provisions for the implementation of reservations, procurement of supplies, and payment for the homelands of the Indian people. The first treaty was established in 1778 and the last was enacted in 1871, 371 treaties were established between Indian tribes and the United States government (Utter, 1993).

Treaties with the Indian people were negotiated by the President of the United States and were binding when approved by the Indian leaders and two-thirds of the U.S. Senate. “A treaty is a contract, a binding and legal agreement, between two or more sovereign nations. By signing treaties with Indian tribes, the United States acknowledged tribal sovereign status. When the architects of the American government created the Constitution, they explicitly recognized that treaties are the supreme law of the land, along with the Constitution itself,” (Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commision, N.D., para. 5,)

Many tribal people felt they had no choice but to give in to the U. S. government. The subjects dealt with in the treaties covered a variety of topics, mostly giving up a vast majority of their land. The greatest number of treaties were arranged between 1815 and 1860s, during the prominent westward expansion, 260 treaties to be exact. Almost 100 treaties specifically addressed boundaries between a tribe and the United States government. Two tribes, the Potawatomi and Chippewa, negotiated 42 treaties, which was more than any other tribes (Oswalt, 1978). Not all of the 550 federally recognized tribes established treaties with the federal government (Ellis, 2007).

Congress assigned commissioners to assure these treaty documents were secured with the tribes. They were considered to be the conquered ones. These meetings were not based on equality; the meetings exemplified expansionism. For example, the Treaty of Paris in 1783 took possession of Indian Territory from the Atlantic to the Mississippi.

           

Michigan history has also been influenced greatly by the political actions of Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, from the naming of communities to his involvement with the Native Americans. Schoolcraft named many of Michigan’s counties and locations when he was residing in the Michigan territory. He named Leelanau County after his wife’s pen name “Leelinau” and went on to name  Algoma, Allegan, Alpena, Arenac, Iosco, Kalkaska, Oscoda and Tuscola. He used faux Indian names and combined words and syllables from Native American languages with words and syllables from Latin and Arabic languages. Many locations were named after him such as Schoolcraft County in Michigan, Schoolcraft River and Schoolcraft Lake in Minnesota, and Schoolcraft Township in Houghton County, Michigan (Bremer, 1987).

            Schoolcraft led a life filled with ambition and curiosity and he obtained additional notoriety through his writing career. He was driven to tell the country about his findings through his published works. He studied with great interest topics such as Native Americans, mineralogy, education, and the Ozark area. Through extensive travels he believed he discovered the source of the Mississippi, examined the lives of Native Americans, and 2,000 miles of Lake Huron and Lake Superior shoreline. After he was commissioned by Congress, Schoolcraft worked for years on the history of Indian tribes of the United States. His compilation of Indian studies was published in six volumes from 1851-1857 (Schoolcraft, 1978).

Schoolcraft strived to convert the Indian people into what he considered to be a more respectable people, people who farmed instead of hunted to provide sustenance for their villages. Schoolcraft portrayed himself as having the best interests of the Indian people in Michigan in mind when he pursued the 1836 Treaty of Washington. His justification behind this treaty was stated when the Agent wrote to his wife, Jane Schoolcraft:

“…All that could be worked in by the way of schools, mission, agriculture, mechanics… is granted. Much money will be annually distributed, their debts paid, their half-breed relations provided for, every man, woman & child of them, &large presents given out. Rejoice with me. The day of their prosperity has been long delayed, but has finally reached them, in their lowest state of poverty, when their game is almost gone, and the county is shorn of all its advantages for the hunter state,” (Bremer, 1987, pg. 169-170).

            Many people refer to Schoolcraft as undeserving of respect and admiration, but like many people seeking notoriety, he also had a soft side. He cared deeply about his own children, especially his son Willy who died at an early age. Schoolcraft fought stridently to stop others from providing alcoholic beverages to the Native Americans. He was against the substance and thought the Indian people could do without the evils of alcohol. Schoolcraft met with many people to accomplish his goal of changing the lives of Indian people for the better.

 

The 1836 Treaty of Washington was a part of the Indian Removal faction, a movement which wiped out the ownership of a vast amount of Indian territories in Michigan for the Native Americans. Schoolcraft was instrumental in organizing gatherings of Chippewa and Odawa leaders to discuss the impending treaty negotiations. He prepared these individuals for what he presumed was for the good of the general population as well as the Native Americans.       

            Tanner was requested to meet with Schoolcraft to plan a meeting with the Odawas concerning land acquisitions in September of 1835. Tanner led a troubled life when he was abducted from his father’s ranch in Kentucky by Shawnee Indians. He was taken to their village in Saginaw which was part of the Michigan territory in 1789 at the age of 9 years. He was traded to the Odawa tribe two years later and then finally ended up with an Ojibwe tribe in Manitoba, Canada at age 13. Abused at first by the tribal people until he had proven his superior hunting skills. He completely assimilated into the American Indian culture and became feared and respected by many. Tanner became a useful interpreter for people such as Schoolcraft (Daudert, 2011).

Tanner traveled to Mackinac Island for a meeting with Odawa leaders which included Augustin Hamelin, an educated mixed-blood Odawa chief who served as a teacher on occasion at some of the mission schools. He was appointed as head chief of the tribe and spokesperson for the Odawas, which was considered a high honor. His grandfather held the same position as head chief.

Hamelin and other leaders of the Odawa tribe were encouraged to meet with the Great Father, the president of the United States to discuss land acquisitions. Hamelin was accompanied by eight other Odawas when they traveled to Washington. They arrived at the beginning of December of 1835. The Odawas met with Cass to sell to the United States government specific islands located near Lake Michigan, along with land north of the Straits which actually belonged to the Chippewas. The Odawas wanted to remain on their lands. They also requested the government to provide them with additional funding for Indian education associated with the Catholic mission schools in the Michigan territory. Cass refused their offer and used this opportunity to negotiate the selling of Chippewa and Odawa lands in Michigan. His refusal of their offer was a turning point concerning the development of the treaty in 1836. Cass set into motion a full-scale treaty council in Washington to gain control a lot of the Indian territories in Michigan. 

            A lot of support for this venture came from the Michigan Delegate Lucius Lyon and the Detroit Acting Governor Stevens T. Mason. In part of his opening address to the legislature Mason mentioned ceasing the Indian title to lands in the Lower Peninsula of Michigan. Part of the land not suitable for agriculture would be ceded to the Indians for their use. If the Indian people agreed to cede the lands in question the United States might offer payment of their debts as well as future financial allowances. When Schoolcraft arrived in Washington, he learned that he was given the responsibility to gather a full-treaty council of Chippewa and Odawa chiefs in the capital as soon as possible to negotiate a finalized treaty.

 

Many traders decided to attend the treaty council in Washington including John Drew of the Mackinac trading firm of Biddle and Drew along with Samuel Abbott from the American Fur Trading Company. These companies wanted to ensure the debts owed to them by the Indians would be paid and they wanted to encourage the Indian people to sell their land. 

            Before the treaty negotiations began, Schoolcraft was busy setting the groundwork for such discussions. He wanted to reinforce his claims as an Indian expert and their spokesperson by sending two lengthy letters to the president. He informed the president about the policy associated with the Indian people residing in the Columbia River Basin. Schoolcraft warned the president that the Hudson Bay Company existed under strong British influence and the purpose of this company was to suppress American interests. He recommended a special agent be assigned to that region to explain the ill-intended goals of the British-run company.

            This communication with the president did not secure the title of governor of Wisconsin for Schoolcraft. His interests in rising in rank were thwarted by familial connections with others in higher places of authority. For example, the newly elected territorial delegate George W. Jones was a close friend of Henry Dodge, hero of the Black Hawk War. Dodge was also a half-brother of Missouri Senator Henry Linn. Dodge received the appointment as Governor late in April, 1836. 

Schoolcraft also had his eyes on Michigan’s statehood and the formation of the Wisconsin Territory. He was concerned about the organization of the Indian Department. Schoolcraft sent a letter to Delegate Lyon and Delegate Jones in which he suggested the creation of a new Superintendent position for the Great Lakes region which would combine the Green Bay Agency with the agencies included in the Michigan territory. Comprised in the proposal was the assignment to William Clark over the remaining agencies in Wisconsin. Under this proposal Clark, the new governor, would be relieved of any responsibility for the administration of Indian affairs. The areas included in this proposal were the sub-agencies at Detroit, Green Bay, and  Sault Ste. Marie as well as an office clerk at Detroit. This reorganization would enable Schoolcraft to retain the Mackinac Agency as Superintendent while he spent his winters in Detroit. The Secretary of War had to approve these changes.

            He continued to work with the Catholic Odawas of L’Arbre Croche who were adamant about not selling their lands. Schoolcraft was not successful with obtaining the signatures authorizing the sale of the Odawa lands from the non-Catholic leaders. William Johnston, Schoolcraft’s brother-in-law, informed him that if the tribal leaders were approached alone in Washington they would probably sign the treaty.  Some of the Odawa leaders finally agreed to travel to Washington.

            William Johnston used the opportunity of the treaty negotiations to persuade his uncle Waiskey, a chief at Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, to sign a document acknowledging a debt of $20,000 to Mrs. Johnston. He went further to thank his brother-in-law, Schoolcraft, for not letting any opportunity pass unnoticed concerning the family’s interests.

           

            On March 3, 1836, three of the Odawa chiefs from Grand River in Michigan arrived in Washington and other designates from other Michigan Chippewa and Odawa tribes followed suit. Cass appointed Schoolcraft the sole treaty commissioner. Schoolcraft’s duties were described in an outline about the burden resting upon those chosen to negotiate with the Indians:

               

“An Indian negotiator is placed by the execution of his duty in a peculiar situation. He is required by his instructions to procure a cession upon the best terms for the United States. On the other hand, neither the feelings of the age, the opinions of the Country, nor the principles of the government permit, that he should extort from the wanderers of the forest the inheritance of their forefathers for the merest pittance, which they may be induced to take. There are more considerations, connected with this subject, which no honorable man will disregard. The execution of the duty is a best irksome and unpleasant. A part of the community see in every land of the Indians is acquired with the merest shadow of a compensation. Another can discern nothing but an useless and lavish expenditure of the public money.  Between these discordant opinions, it is difficult to pursue any course, which shall render general satisfaction” (Bremer, 1987,pg. 165).

           

                By March 14, the representatives of Chippewa and Odawa chiefs requested the presence of the Secretary of War, Cass, and President Jackson. Schoolcraft made the following proposal: “I am recommending that all the wonderful Indian people sitting before me cede their lands north of Grand River of the Lower Peninsula to as far west as the Chocolay River of the Upper Peninsula.” (The Chocolay River is located near Marquette, Michigan and the Grand River stretches from Grand Rapids, to Ionia, Grand Haven, Eaton Rapids, and Jackson (near Detroit). Grand River is the longest river in Michigan, 252 miles long.)

 

            Treaty negotiations started going awry. Many traders had their hands in the pot trying to stir things up. Many of the Indian people broke away from their trader alliances. Since things were such a mess, the claims would have to go before the commissioner which was not what they wanted to happen. The sum set aside to pay off the Indian debts, in which some of the debts were real or imagined, would even things out Schoolcraft believed. 

At the conclusion of the treaty council, the Odawas decided to sell their lands located in the Lower Peninsula of Michigan with the exception of specific reservations. This condition was readily accepted by the government. The Chippewas decided to sell their lands with the agreement that they could settle on certain reservation locations. During these council meetings it was suggested by the Chippewas that their mixed-blood relatives receive land grants and they recommended that specific traders be permitted to examine their accounts. On Schoolcraft’s 43^rd birthday, March 28, 1836, the U.S. treaty commissioner and the Indian delegates signed the final treaty document.

Government officials established a subsidy system through which the Indian people were given supplies during the transition period for farming. The United States Senate decided these provisions were too lofty and revised these sanctions. The Native Americans were given only five years to reside on the land holdings, and the Senate decided the debts owed to the business owners were the responsibility of the Indian people (Bremer, 1987).

Under the terms of the treaty, the Chippewa and Odawa tribal leaders ceded approximately 16 million acres, or about three eighths of the entire state of Michigan. Schoolcraft agreed to a payment to members of Indian affiliations. Payments were distributed to full-blooded Indian people and half-blood people, with the half-blood people given a much higher amount. Some of the key players involved in the implementation of the 1836 Treaty of Washington were Lewis Cass, Secretary of War, and previous governor of Michigan, Henry Schoolcraft, and President Jackson with a number of Chippewa and Odawa leaders.

 

Schoolcraft sought monetary awards for half-breeds and full-blooded Indian people and the payment of debts to business owners owed by the Indian people. Monetary settlements were provided to the Indian people and mixed-bloods were entitled to more compensation. Schoolcraft’s mixed blood relatives were awarded compensation. Some of the traders were given part or most of their claims. These claims were the unpaid debts of the Native Americans. The treaty proved to be a lucrative exchange for many of the people involved in its implementation except for the full-blooded Native American people. 

Although Schoolcraft married a woman of Ojibwe (Chippewa) descent, he had a hand in taking away a lot of their land holdings as a result of the treaty he established. The treaty was completed and signed on March 28, 1836 in Washington D.C. by Henry Schoolcraft, Indian Commissioner for the United States and several Native American representatives. Approximately 16 million acres, or around three-eighths of the entire state of Michigan was ceded to the U.S. government by the Chippewa and Odawa tribes (Bremer, 1987). Land meant life for the Native Americans, it meant they could provide for their communities by hunting and gathering. Stranded on much smaller portions of land prevented them from living a self-sufficient life and made them reliant on the government to provide for their needs at a later date while enduring reservation life.

 

Washington, District of Columbia
Treaty with the Ottawa, etc., 1836

Articles of a treaty made and concluded at the city of Washington in the District of Columbia, between Henry R. Schoolcraft, commissioner on the part of the United States, and the Ottawa and Chippewa nations of Indians, by their chiefs and delegates.

ARTICLE FIRST. The Ottawa and Chippewa nations of Indians cede to the United States all the tract of country within the following boundaries: Beginning at the mouth of Grand river of Lake Michigan on the north bank thereof, and following up the same to the line called for, in the first article of the treaty of Chicago of the 29th of August 1821, thence, in a direct line, to the head of Thunder-bay river, thence with the line established by the treaty of Saginaw of the 24th of September 1819, to the mouth of said river, thence northeast to the boundary line in Lake Huron between the United States and the British province of Upper Canada, thence northwestwardly, following the same line, as established by the commissioners acting under the treaty of Ghent, through the straits, and river St. Mary's, to a point in Lake Superior north of the mouth of Gitchy Seebing, or Chocolate river, thence south to the mouth of said river and up its channel to the source thereof, thence, in a direct line to the head of the Skonawba river of Green bay, thence down the south bank of said river to its mouth, thence, in direct line, through the ship channel into Green bay, to the outer part thereof, thence south to a point in Lake Michigan west of the north cape, or entrance of Grand river, andthence east to the place of beginning, at the cape aforesaid, comprehending all the lands and islands, within these limits, not hereinafter reserved.

ARTICLE SECOND. From the cession aforesaid the tribes reserve for their own use, to be held in common the following tracts for the term of five years from the date of the ratification of this treaty, and no longer; unless the United States shall grant them permission to remain on said lands for a longer period, namely: One tract of fifty thousand acres to be located on Little Traverse bay: one tract of twenty thousand acres to be located on the north shore of Grand Traverse bay, one tract of seventy thousand acres to be located on or, north of the Pieire Marquetta river, one tract of one thousand acres to be located by Chingassanoo,-or the Big Sail, on the Cheboigan. One tract of one thousand acres, to be located by Mujeekewis, on Thunder-bay river.

ARTICLE THIRD. There shall also be reserved for the use of the Chippewas living north of the straits of Michilimackinac, the following tracts for the term of five years from the date of the ratification of this treaty, and no longer, unless the United States shall grant them permission to remain on said lands for a longer period, that is to say: Two tracts of three miles square each, on the north shores of the said straits, between Point-au-Barbe and Mille Coquin river, including the fishing grounds in front of such reservations, to be located by a council of the chiefs. The Beaver islands of Lake Michigan for the use of the Beaver-island Indians.  Round island, opposite Michilimackinac, as a place of encampment for the Indians, to be under the charge of the Indian department. The islands of the Chenos, with a part of the adjacent north coast of Lake Huron, corresponding in lngth, and one mile in depth. Sugar island, with its islets, in the river of St. Marys. Six hundred and forty acres, at the mision of the Little Rapids. A tract commencing at the mouth of the Pississowining river, south of Point Iroquois, thence running up said stream to its forks, thence westward, in a direct line to the Red water lakes, thence across the portage to the Tacquimenon river, and down the same to its mouth, including the small islands and fishing grounds, in front of this reservation. Six hundred and forty acres, on Grand Island, and two thousand acres, on the main land south of it. Two sections, on the northern extremity of Green bay, to be located by a council of the chiefs All the locations, left indefinite by this, and the preceding articles, shall be made by the proper chiefs, under the direction of the President. It is understood that the reservation for a place of fishing and encampment, made under the treaty of St. Mary's of the 16th of June 1820, remains unaffected by this treaty.

ARTICLE FOURTH. In consideration of the foregoing cessions, the United States engage to pay to the Ottawa and Chippewa nations, the following sums, namely.

1st. An annuity of thirty thousand dollars per annum, in specie, for twenty years; eighteen thousand dollars, to be paid to the Indians between Grand River and the Cheboigun; three thousand six hundred dollars, to the Indians on the Huron shore, between the Cheboigan and Thunder-bay river; and seven thousand four hundred dollars, to the Chippewas north of the straits, as far as the cession extends; the remaining one thousand dollars, to be invested in stock by the Treasury Department and to remain incapable of being sold, without the consent of the President and the Senate, which may, however, be given, after the expiration of twenty-one years.

2nd. Five thousand dollars per annum, for the purpose of education, teachers, school-houses, and books in their own language, to be continued twenty years, and as long thereafter as Congress may appropriate for the object.

3rd. Three thousand dollars for missions, subject to the conditions mentioned in the second clause of this article.

4th. Ten thousand dollars for agricultural implements, cattle, mechanics' tools, and such other objects as the President may deem proper.

5th. Three hundred dollars per annum for vaccine matter, medicines, and the services of physicians, to be continued while the Indians remain on their reservations.

6th. Provisions to the amount of two thousand dollars; six thousand five hundred pounds of tobacco; one hundred barrels of salt, and five hundred fish barrels, annually, for twenty years.

7th. One hundred and fifty thousand dollars, in goods and provisions, on the ratification of this treaty, to be delivered at Michilimackinac, and also the sum of two hundred thousand dollars, in consideration of changing the permanent reservations in article two and three to reservations for five years only, to be paid whenever their reservations shall be surrendered, and until that time the interest on said two hundred thousand dollars shall be annually paid to the said Indians.

ARTICLE FIFTH. The sum of three hundred thousand dollars shall be paid to said Indians to enable them, with the aid and assistance of their agent, to adjust and pay such debts as they may justly owe, and the overplus, if any, to apply to such other use as they may think proper.

ARTICLE SIXTH. The said Indians being desirous of making provision for their half-breed relatives, and the President having determined, that individual reservations shall not be granted, it is agreed, that in lieu thereof, the sum of one hundred and fifty thousand dollars shall be set apart as a fund for said half-breeds. No person shall be entitled to any part of said fund, unless he is of Indian descent and actually resident within the boundaries described in the first article of this treaty, nor shall anything be allowed to any such person, who may have received no allowance at any previous Indian treaty. The following principles, shall regulate the distribution. A census shall be taken of all the men, women, and children, coming within this article. As the Indians hold in higher consideration, some of their half-breeds than others, and as there is much difference in their capacity to use and take care of property, and, consequently, in their power to aid their Indian connections, which furnishes a strong ground for this claim, it is, therefore, agreed, that at the council to be held upon this subject, the commissioner shall call upon the Indian chiefs to designate, if they require it, three classes of these claimants, the first of which, shall receive one-half more than the second, and the second, double the third. Each man woman and child shall be enumerated, and an equal share, in the respective classes, shall be allowed to each. If the father is living with the family, he shall receive the shares of himself, his wife and children. If the father is dead, or separated from the family, and the mother is living with the family, she shall have her own share, and that of the children. If the father and mother are neither living with the family, or if the children are orphans, their share shall be retained till they are twenty-one years of age; provided, that such portions of it as may be necessary may, under the direction of the President, be from time to time applied for their support.  All other persons at the age of twenty-one years, shall receive their portions agreeably to the proper class. Out of the said fund of one hundred and fifty thousand dollars, the sum of five thousand dollars shall be reserved to be applied, under the direction of the President, to the support of such of the poor half breeds, as may require assistance, to be expended in annual instalments for the term of ten years, commencing with the second year. Such of the half-breeds, as may be judged incapable of making a proper use of the money, allowed them by the commissioner, shall receive the same in instalments, as the President may direct.

ARTICLE SEVENTH. In consideration of the cessions above made, and as a further earnest of the disposition felt to do full justice to the Indians, and to further their well being, the United States engage to keep two additional blacksmith-shops, one of which, shall be located on the reservation north of Grand river, and the other at Sault Ste. Marie. A permanent interpreter will be provided at each of these locations. It is stipulated to renew the present dilapidated shop at Michilimackinac, and to maintain a gunsmith, in addition to the present smith's establishment, and to build a dormitory for the Indians visiting the post, and appoint a person to keep it, and supply it with fire-wood. It is also agreed, to support two farmers and assistants, and two mechanics, as the President may designate, to teach and aid the Indians, in agriculture, and in the mechanic arts. The farmers and mechanics, and the dormitory, will be continued for ten years, and as long thereafter, as the President may deem this arrangement useful and necessary; but the benefits of the other stipulations of this article, shall be continued beyond the expiration of the annuities, and it is understood that the whole of this article shall stand in force, and insure to the benefit of the Indians, as long after the expiration of the twenty years as Congress may appropriate for the objects.

ARTICLE EIGHTH. It is agreed, that as soon as the said Indians desire it, a deputation shall be sent to the southwest of the Missouri River, there to select a suitable place for the final settlement of said Indians, which country, so selected and of reasonable extent, the United States will forever guaranty and secure to said Indians. Such improvements as add value to the land, hereby ceded, shall be appaised, and the amount paid to the proper Indian. But such payment shall, in no case, be assigned to, or paid to, a white man. If the church on the Cheboigan, shall fall within this cession, the value shall be paid to the band owning it. The net proceeds of the sale of the one hundred and sixty acres of land, upon the Grand River upon which the missionary society have erected their buildings, shall be paid to the said society, in lieu of the value of their said improvements. When the Indians wish it, the United States will remove them, at their expence, provide them a year's subsistence in the country to which they go, and furnish the same articles and equipments to each person as are stipulated to be given to the Pottowatomies in the final treaty of cession concluded at Chicago.

ARTICLE NINTH. Whereas the Ottawas and Chippewas, feeling a strong consideration for aid rendered by certain of their half-breeds on Grand river, and other parts of the country ceded, and wishing to testify their gratitude on the present occasion, have assigned such individuals certain locations of land, and united in a strong appeal for the allowance of the same in this treaty; and whereas no such reservations can be permitted in carrying out the special directions of the President on this subject, it is agreed, that, in addition to the general fund set apart for half-breed claims, in the sixth article, the sum of forty-eight thousand one hundred and forty-eight dollars shall be paid for the extinguishment of this class of claims, to be divided in the following manner: To Rix Robinson, in lieu of a section of land, granted to his Indian family, on the Grand river rapids, (estimated by good judges to be worth half a million) at the rate of thirty-six dollars an acre: To Leonard Slater, in trust for Chiminonoquat, for a section of land above said rapids, at the rate of ten dollars an acre: To John A. Drew, for a tract of one section and three quarters, to his Indian famiy, at Ceboigan rapids, at the rate of four dollars; to Edward Biddle, for one section to his Indian family at the fishing grounds, at the rate of three dollars: to John Holiday, for five sections of land to five persons of his Indian family, at the rate of one dollar and twenty-five cents; to Eliza Cook, Sophia Biddle, and Mary Holiday, one section of land each, at two dollars and fifty cents: To Augustin Hamelin junr, being of Indian descent, two sections, at one dollar and twenty-five cents; to William Lasley, Joseph Daily, Joseph Trotier, Henry A. Levake, for two sections each, for their Indian families, at one dollar and twenty-five cents:  To Luther Rice, Joseph Lafrombois, Charles Butterfield, being of Indian descent, and to George Moran, Louis Moran, G. D. Williams, for half-breed children under their care, and to Daniel Marsac, for his Indian child, one section each, at one dollar and twenty-five cents.

ARTICLE TENTH. The sum of thirty thousand dollars shall be paid to the chiefs, on the ratification of this treaty, to be divided agreeably to a schedule hereunto annexed. [Schedule deleted]

ARTICLE ELEVENTH. The Ottawas having consideration for one of their aged chiefs, who is reduced to poverty, and it being known that he was a firm friend of the American Government, in that quarter, during the late war, and suffered much in consequence of his sentiments, it is agreed, that an annuity of one hundred dollars per annum shall be paid to Ningweegon or the Wing, during his natural life, in money or goods, as he may choose. Another of the chiefs of said nation, who attended the treaty of Greenville in [1795], and is now, at a very advanced age, reduced to extreme want, together with his wife, and the Government being apprized that he has pleaded a promise of Gen. Wayne, in his behalf, it is agreed that Chusco of Michilimackinac shall receive an annuity of fifty dollars per annum during his natural life.

ARTICLE TWELFTH. All expenses attending the journey of the Indians from, and to their homes, and their visit at the seat of Government, together with the expenses of the treaty, including a proper quantity of clothing to be given them, will be paid by the United States.

ARTICLE THIRTEENTH. The Indians stipulate for the right of hunting on the lands ceded, with the other usual privileges of occupancy, until the land is required for settlement.

In testimony whereof, the said Henry R. Schoolcraft, commissioner on the part of the United States, and the chiefs and delegates of the Ottawa and Chippewa nation of Indians, have hereunto set their hands, at Washington the seat of Government this twenty-eighth day of March, in the year one thousand eight hundred and thirty-six.

SUPPLEMENTAL ARTICLE. To guard against misconstruction in some of the foregoing provisions, and to secure, by further limitations, the just rights of the Indians, it is hereby agreed: that no claims under the fifth article shall be allowed for any debts contracted previous to the late war with Great Britain, or for goods supplied by foreigners to said Indians, or by citizens, who did not withdraw from the country, during its temporary occupancy by foreign troops, for any trade carried on by such persons during the said period. And it is also agreed: that no person receiving any commutation for a reservation, or any portion of the fund provided by the sixth article of this treaty, shall be entitled to the benefit of any part of the annuities herein stipulated. Nor shall any of the half-breeds, or blood relatives of the said tribes, commuted with, under the provisions of the ninth article, have any further claim on the general commutation fund, set apart to satisfy reservation claims, in the said sixth article. It is also understood, that the personal annuities, stipulated in the eleventh article, shall be paid in specie in the same manner that other annuities are paid. Any excess of the funds set apart in the fifth and sixth articles, shall, in lieu of being paid to the Indians, be retained and vested by the Government in stock under the conditions mentioned in the fourth article of this treaty.

In testimony whereof, the parties above recited, have hereunto set their hands, at Washington the seat of Government this thirty-first day of March, in the year one thousand eight hundred and thirty-six.

Source: https://www.cmich.edu/library/clarke/ResearchResources/Native_American_Material/Treaty_Rights/Text_of_Michigan_Related_Treaties/Pages/Washington,-1836.aspx

Trail of Death (Potawatomi Removal)

 

“When we quitted this camp later, we left behind six graves in the shadow of the cross. We soon found ourselves on the grand prairies of Illinois, under a burning sun and without shade from one camp to another. They are as vast as the ocean, and the eye seeks in vain for a tree. Not a drop of water can be found there – it was a veritable torture for our poor sick, some of whom died each day from weakness and fatigue.”

-Father Benjamin Petit

 

In September of 1838, 859 Potawatomi Indians, forced from their homeland near Plymouth, Indiana, marched at gunpoint 660 miles to present-day Osawatomie, Kansas. During the arduous journey, their tribe lost 42 of its members, mostly children, of typhoid fever and the stress of the removal. Approximately the same amount escaped during the journey. When they arrived at their final destination, only 756 remained. The removal resulted from the Indian Removal Act passed by U.S. Congress and signed by Andrew Jackson in 1830. The Five Civilized Tribes, who resided in the Southeast part of the country, were the original targets for removal. Some of the Potawatomi tribes moved earlier without being forced. The Pokagon Potawatomi managed to stay at their homeland in southern Michigan due to the efforts of their leader Leopold Pokagon, and partially because of their participation in Catholicism. Menominee’s tribe did not want to leave their homeland. The Potawatomi had nine distinct groups, seven residing in the United States and two ended up residing in Mexico and Canada. Many tribal groups signed treaties which enforced their removal from their homelands. The Potawatomi bands signed more treaties than any other tribes, 40 in all, which added a lot of confusion to where they were supposed to live.

 

We are like birds in a windstorm. The tree boughs keep

moving, and we don’t know which one to land on.

-Quito, a Potawatomi Elder

 

            All tribal nations have their own creation story. Some stories portray how the Potawatomi have always been in existence. Other stories tell about a migration from the Eastern coast with the Ojibwe and Odawa nations. The three tribes formed the Three Fires Confederacy, with each nation having served a vital role. The Ojibwe were keepers of Tradition; the Odawa were keepers of the Trade; and the Potawatomi served as keepers of the Fire. Originally, the Potawatomi migrated to north of Lakes Huron and Superior, to Wisconsin, southern Michigan, northern Indiana, and northern Illinois (Pokagon Band of Potawatomi, ND).

            Potawatomi warriors fought in battles which were either lost or won such as the Battle of Fallen Timbers in Ohio in 1794. Tippecanoe (the Prophet and Tecumseh’s brother) was defeated by General William Henry Harrison in 1811. Potawatomi warriors participated in the siege of Fort Dearborn (Chicago) and Fort Wayne in 1812.  Over 20 years after the battles, they resided peacefully in northern Indiana and southern Michigan. They made an attempt to be farmers and live amongst white men. Many were baptized by the Catholic and Baptist missionaries. Some of the old warriors from the aforementioned battles were part of the removal in the 1830s (Willard, S. and Campbell, S., 2003).

The first Potawatomi band, who were removed from their homeland, lived near the Iroquois River by the Illinois-Indiana border. Thousands were removed from northeastern Illinois in 1835. Large and smaller groups traveled together. The 1833 Treaty of Chicago enforced the conditions for the removal of the Potawatomi from the Great Lakes Area when Michigan became a state in 1837. The journey involved approximately 500 Potawatomi and it was a hazardous trip in which one in every ten people died during the excursion. News traveled fast and small groups of families fled to northern Michigan and Canada to avoid removal to the western part of the country (Weiser, 2017).  

Leopold Pokagon’s village was at what is now Niles, Michigan. In 1838, Leopold and a small group of Potawatomi visited the Odawa at L’Arbre Croche (Petoskey, Michigan area) to find out if they could relocate to their area. The 1833 Treaty allowed them to remain in Michigan. Their future plan involved moving to reside with Odawa within five years. The 1836 Treaty of Washington signed between the Odawa, Ojibwe and the U.S. government ceded most of their land. There was no room for the Potawatomi to reside on the Odawa land. Leopold purchased land at Silver Creek Township by utilizing the tribe’s annuity monies accumulated from previous treaty negotiations. The Pokagon and other groups moved to the Silver Creek area which is now Dowagiac, Michigan. Brigadier General Hugh Brady made an attempt to force Pokagon’s Band out of Michigan. Pokagon, an elder man in bad health, traveled to Detroit to obtain a written judgment from Epaphroditus Ransom of the Michigan Supreme Court. He was granted the judgment and the Pokagon group could remain on their land. Other Potawatomi groups were not so lucky.

By August 1838 most of the Potawatomi bands migrated from their homelands in Indiana and Michigan to Kansas, which started in 1832. Menominee and his band refused to sign treaties and relocate to Kansas. Hundreds who did not want to move out west, joined Menominee’s band. The band grew from 4 wigwams in 1821 to 100 wigwams by 1838. Indiana Governor David Wallace was infuriated and ordered General John Tipton to remove the tribe.

On August 30^th, General Tipton, along with 100 troops, burned crops and the homes of the Potawatomi to discourage them returning to the area. They ordered at gunpoint 859 Indians to begin their march on September 4^th. Chief Menominee and two other chiefs, No-taw-kah and Pee-pin-oh-waw were transported in a horse-drawn jail wagon. The rest of the band traveled by foot or rode horseback behind the jail wagon. The group made the trek each day which started at 8:00a.m. each morning until 4:00p.m., when they received their first meal of the day.

Father Benjamin M. Petit accompanied the group of travelers and provided ministry to the tribe to aid them spiritually, emotionally, and physically. He took care of the sick. During that fall a drought occurred and there was little water available for the travelers, what they found was stagnant. Many became sick with probably thyroid disease. More and more died along the way and Father Petit became sick. While sick he conducted ministry to the sick. On November 13, 1838, he sent a letter to Bishop Simon Brute in Vincennes, Indiana, to describe the march (Wiemer, 2017).

“The order of march was as follows: the United States flag, carried by a dragoon; then one of the principal officers, next the staff baggage carts, then the carriage, which during the whole trip was kept for the use of the Indian chiefs, then one or two chiefs on horseback led a line of 250 to 300 horses ridden by men, women, children in single file, after the manner of savages.

On the flanks of the line at equal distance from each other were the dragoons and volunteers, hastening the stragglers, often with severe gestures and bitter words. After this cavalry came a file of forty baggage wagons filled with luggage and Indians. The sick were lying in them, rudely jolted, under a canvas which, far from protecting them from the dust and heat, only deprived them of air, for they were as if buried under this burning canopy – several died” (Wiemer, 2017, paras. 8 and 9).

They marched across the prairies of Illinois and crossed the Mississippi River at Quincy, Missouri and continued until they reached the Kansas territory and Osawatomie, Kansas, the final destination. The tired group reached their final destination on November 4, 1838. Winter was coming on and there were no houses for the Native Americans which the government promised. The Potawatomi and a very sick Father Petit stayed with them for a few weeks until Jesuit Father Christian Hoecken agreed to provide them with a place to stay at the St. Mary’s Sugar Creek Mission, 20 miles away from Osawatomie.

Father Petit traveled to Indiana accompanied by Nan-wesh-mah Burnett. He had to be held on the horse and had sores all over his body. He ended up traveling by wagon because he was so sick. He died at the seminary in St. Louis, Missouri on February 10, 1839 at the age of 27. The Potawatomi thought he was a saint.

Three years after their arrival, Mother Rose Phillippine Duchesne arrived at the mission in 1841. She taught school to the Potawatomi children and was known to have established the first Indian school for girls west of the Mississippi River. When she turned 72, her health was failing so she dedicated her life to prayer and prayed day and night. The Indians called her Quah-kah-ka-num-ad (woman who prays always).

The Potawatomi remained at the mission for ten years. In 1848 they moved further west to reside close to the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation at Mayetta, Kansas. While at the first mission, 600 of the Potawatomi died, many shortly after their arrival. Chief Menominee died on April 15, 1841 when he was 50. All of the dead Potawatomi were buried at the site (Weiser, 2017).

Today, seven distinct Potawatomi bands reside in the United States: Citizen Potawatomi, Forest County Potawatomi, Hannahville Indian Community, Match-e-he-nash-whi-wish Potawatomi, Nottawaseppi Huron Potawatomi, Pokagon Potawatomi and Prairie Band Potawatomi. The Coahuila Potawatomi reside in Mexico and the Walpole Island First Nation people live in Canada. The group that resides in Mexico, fled to Mexico to avoid the “white man’s war” (the Civil War) in December 1864 (Godfrey, 2015).

The Potawatomi have history of fighting in battles during the 1700 and 1800s. They decided to settle down to a life of farming and tried to live in harmony next to the white settlers. Leopold Pokagon managed to remain in Michigan because of the band’s willingness to embrace Catholicism and Pokagon’s ability to negotiate with a member of the supreme court. Many traveled west to settle in Kansas voluntarily. Michigan became a state in 1837 and the fertile land was needed for the onslaught of white settlers. Menominee’s band decided to hunker down in Indiana and refused to sign treaties. His band ended up being forced to march westward at gunpoint in what is known as the “Trail of Death.” Many died during the march and shortly after they arrived at their final destination. Various groups of Native Americans ended up leaving their homelands, but managed to continue their legacy.

Termination Era

 

“In Washington’s infinite wisdom, it was decided that tribes should no longer be tribes,

never mind that they had been tribes for thousands of years.”

-Senator Ben Nighthorse Campbell

 

“This era marked another abrupt change in what can only be described as

a schizophrenic federal Indian policy.”

-Nez Perce Tribe

           In 1945, congressional opponents pursued endeavors to enforce assimilation of Native Americans to the white populations’ cultural practices. John Collier, who was forced to resign, emphasized cultural pluralism for American Indians. The revised approach involved termination. Terminating Indian reservations, terminating all treaty obligations, and terminating all government programs that served Indians were some of the methods of the proposed enforced assimilation. Indian cultures considered immaterial and anti-American, did not hold historical, cultural or legal ramifications for those who pursued the elimination of tribal status and involved in such status. Reservations were viewed as segregation and believed to have slowed the process of assimilation. They intended to dismantle the reservation system and utilize the natural resources located on specific reservations for private non-Indian companies, and to place the responsibility of Indian affairs on state and county governments. They wanted the federal government out of the Indian business. Termination policies ended the federally recognized status of approximately 100 tribal nations. State jurisdiction was lorded over the affected tribes. Many Native Americans suffered cultural shock when they were forced to relocate to urban slums and other areas. The termination process weakened tribal governments and had a long-lasting, damaging effect on their civil liberties.

            The motivation behind the termination tactics involved money and a sense of superiority over Native Americans. The United States faced enduring debt due to the rebuilding of war-torn countries and it did not want to be burdened with treaty rights, tribal governments, and the cost of Indian programs. Upon termination of various tribes, the reservation lands could be sold and/or be subject to local property taxes. The latter concept was highly supported by local governments who had rallied against Native Americans. After World War II, the United States faced a need for major housing expansion which involved an increased demand for natural resources, especially lumber. The tribes that resided in areas with valuable timber and mineral resources were picked to be relocated. The termination policies afforded these resources to be privatized and to be transferred from public domain to ownership by corporations to be further developed. The U.S. government struggled to fight against the cold war, against Communism and to maintain a certain way of life, an Americanized way of life. At the time, many people viewed Native Americans as if they were foreigners, aliens and tribal ownership of land was considered a form of Communism and anti-American. Native Americans received little to no support from the local governments. Others looked upon the termination policies as freeing Indians from federal control.

The first step towards termination and assimilation began with House Joint Resolution 698 in 1952 which included an examination of previous Indian affairs conduct and a list of tribes to be relocated. At first a rendered choice was given which consisted of tribes falling under basic categories of being economically self-supporting, have experienced a significant degree of acculturation and those willing to terminate governmental services. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) utilized an extensive questionnaire to evaluate each tribe. Reservation superintendents and BIA staff prepared a report of the results without Native American input (Native American Partnership, 2013).

In 1953, House Concurrent Resolution 108 called for formal termination of specific tribes which ignored that tribal people had been granted citizenship in 1924 and again in 1940 and were not wards of state governments. Again, Native Americans were not consulted on the termination process. Congress pushed for withdrawal from treaty obligations (Native American Partnership, 2013).

 

“Most of the pending legislation, if passed, would result in the end of our last holdings on this continent and destroy our dignity and distinction as the first inhabitants of this rich land.”

-National Congress of American Indians President Joe Garry (Coeur d’Alene)

 

“Either the United States government will recognize its treaty and statute obligations to the Indians… or we will continue down the bitter road toward complete destruction.”

-Apache tribal leader Clarence Wesley

 

The Menonimee Tribe in Wisconsin, terminated in 1954, became self-sufficient through their lumber business and sales enterprises which permitted them to pay for their members’ health, social welfare and education services before the termination effort. As a result of the termination effort, their economically advantaged competitors took over their timbered land holdings (Wilson, 2018).

Between 1945 and 1960 Congress terminated 113 tribes and bands which caused them to lose legal status as recognized tribes. 11,500 Native Americans lost their legal status as Indians and Native Americans lost 1.4 million acres of trust land. None of the Native Americans who were forced to lose their tribal status improved economically. Most existed in poverty. Many non-Indians profited substantially as a result of the termination process (Native American Partnership, 2013).

            In 1970, President Richard Nixon requested Congress to pass a resolution to cease the termination. He said the following.

            “Because termination is morally and legally unacceptable, because it produces bad practical results, and because the mere threat of termination tends to discourage greater self-sufficiency among Indian groups, I am asking the Congress to pass a new Concurrent Resolution which would expressly renounce, repudiate and repeal the termination policy as expressed in House Concurrent Resolution 108 of the 83^rd Congress” (Native American Partnership, 2013, para. 20).

            Since the end of the termination implementation, 78 of the 113 terminated tribes have had their tribal status reinstated by the United States government, 24 of the terminated tribes have become extinct, and ten have received state recognition but not federal recognition, and 31 ended up being landless (Native American Partnership, 2013).

            Many relocated Native Americans suffered from identity crisis and their families and communities were torn apart. The history of the Indian people involved traditions such as story telling that could no longer exist among the relocated tribal bands. They were dispersed amongst different ethnic and racial backgrounds and emersed in mainstream gender issues in a multicultural society. They suffered from a transition from communalism to a foreign individualism. To overcome their alienation, they escaped reality through drugs and alcohol. These unfortunate people shared many other problems such as unemployment, substandard housing, and a high rate of suicide. The termination policies led to cultural adjustments, socioeconomic struggles and psychological problems (Fixico, 2000).

             The Termination Era led many Native Americans to flee from reservations to urban and rural areas. Congress, after World War II, entertained ways to save money to rebuild war ravaged countries and provide homes for the growing population during the baby boom years. Spooked by the belief that Communism could take over the United States during the Cold War, many people believed the Indian peoples’ reservations represented a form of communism. One of  main reasons Congress sought to eliminate reservations was their desire to acquire the natural resources on specific reservations. A need for timber pushed tribes such as the Menominee tribe in Wisconsin to forfeit their homeland. For many years a multitude of tribal bands fought to reinstate their tribal status while enduring alcoholism, unemployment, high suicide rates and other societal ills.     

 

Termination Policies of the 1950s into the mid-1960s 

Federal Policy seeking to further assimilate American Indian into mainstream American society.  Focus on terminating the US Government's treaty-based, trust responsibilities to Indian communities, having individuals assume all responsibilities of full citizen.  Abrogating all treaty provisions, rights and responsibilities, extinguishing any rights to land, hunting and fishing, along with health care and educational programs, and police and fire fighting services.  Would be subject to federal and state taxes.  

House Concurrent Resolution 108

House Concurrent Resolution 108 of 1953 was a formal statement by the United States Congress announcing the official federal policy of termination. The resolution called for the immediate termination of the Flathead, Klamath, Menominee, Potawatomi, and Turtle Mountain Chippewa, as well as all tribes in the states of California, New York, Florida, and Texas. Termination of a tribe meant the immediate withdrawal of all federal aid, services, and protection, as well as the end of reservations. Individual members of terminated tribes were to become full United States citizens and receive the benefits and responsibilities of any other United States citizens. The resolution also called for the Interior Department to quickly find more tribes who appeared ready for termination in the near future.  

A total of 109 Indian Tribes and Bands were terminated within the United States, with approximately 1,365,00 acres of land removed from trust protection, effecting a total of 11,000 Indians or 3% of the total Indian population.

Public Law 280

Public Law 280, passed in 1953, gave State governments the power to assume jurisdiction over Indian reservations, which had previously been excluded from state jurisdiction. It immediately granted the state criminal and civil jurisdiction over Indian populations in California, Nebraska, Minnesota, Oregon, and Wisconsin. Special clauses prevented this law from being invoked on the Red Lake Reservation in Minnesota and the Warm Springs Reservation in Oregon. After being admitted as a state in 1958, Alaska was added to the list of covered states where termination would be the goal. Public Law 280 also allowed any state to assume jurisdiction over Indian lands by a statute or an amendment to the state constitution. This law made both the states and Native Americans unhappy: the former because they had new responsibilities without any increase in funding to support additional staff and supplies, the latter because they were subject to new laws.

The main effect of Public Law 280 was to disrupt the special relationship between the federal government and the Indian tribes. Previously the tribes had been regulated directly by the federal government.  In Worcester v. Georgia in 1832, the Supreme Court had ruled that state laws cannot be enforced on Indian land. While this preserved a kind of sovereignty and independence for tribes on reservations, in other ways they depended on a complex bureaucracy for too many services.

Source: https://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/~rfrey/329termination_.htm