“The greater the
difficulty,
the greater the
victory.”
Cicero
The
negative impact of historical trauma is still resonating with many Native
Americans today. A multitude of Indian
people suffer from a whole host of social ills such as higher rates of domestic
violence, depression along with other mental health issues, poverty, domestic
violence, and sub-stance abuse, more than any other ethnic group in this
country. Historical trauma is an accumulation of traumatic experiences which
have made a negative impact for multiple generations of Indian people occurring
over a long period of time. For over 500 years, physical, emotional, spiritual,
and psychological genocide was inflicted on the Native American people.
Soon after European contact, a
period referred to as “cultural transition” occurred and Native Americans were
stripped of their social power and cultural authority. As soon as they realized
they could not escape the catastrophic events inflicted upon them, they began
to adopt “giving up” behavioral patterns. They withdrew socially, which in turn
lessened their social and psycho-logical investment in all their relationships,
personal and with their communities.
As a result of the cultural and
social disruption, they engaged in destructive behaviors, social alienation and
developed serious psychological problems, such as alcohol-lism, drug addiction,
and other forms of displaced re-enactments of conflict. These disparaging
behaviors were acquired during the cultural transition period and later during
the boarding school period leaving a legacy of recurring dysfunction and
disturbing behavioral patterns associated with cultural disruption due to acts
of genocide and dis-crimination.
Imagine the difficulty many children
faced when they were forced to attend the Indian boarding schools. Many of these children were sexually,
emotionally, spiritually, and physically abused. The overall damage in-flicted
on the children was tremendous. Native Americans, who were forced to attend
boarding schools and/or reside on reservations, were taught that what hap-pened
to them was their fault. They were led to believe they deserved to be abused
and many have lost the ability to trust themselves or others. Because they had
no place to turn for safety, their sense of hopelessness grew over time.
Historical trauma occurred in six
phases:
·
The
first contact with the Europeans which led to a life filled with shock,
genocide, no time for grief and then the colonization period which introduced
disease and alcoholism.
·
The
second phase was economic competition between various tribes and their European
invaders over resources during the fur trading era and the introduction to a
market based economy. There were physical and spiritual losses experienced dur-ing
this time period for the Indian people.
·
The
European invasion continued involving a war period which included extermination
and refugee associated problems.
·
Next
was a conquest and reservation period which consisted of forced dependency on
their oppressors and a lack of security.
·
The
boarding school era destroyed family systems which involved physical assaults, and
sexual abuse, along with prohibition of Native languages, spirituality, and
cultural associations. The lasting effect includes individuals poorly prepared for
parenting their own children. Many Native American people also experienced identity
confusion.
·
The
final phase of historical trauma consisted of forced relocation to reservations
and a termination period, a period when federally recognized tribal nation
status for a multitude of tribes was abolished along with the services
associated with this status such as food assistance. Many Native Americans
perished due to a lack of food and medical services. There was continued prohibition
of religious freedom, racism and dis-crimination, being viewed as second class citizens
to the rest of the population and a loss of a supportive governmental system
and a sense of belonging to a community (Eyaa-Keen Centre, Inc., 2003).
The following characteristics
represent some of the detrimental effects of historical trauma:
·
Helplessness
·
Injustice
·
A
lack of trust
·
Feelings
of insufficiency
·
Toxic
shame
·
Chronic
guilt
·
Feelings
of brokenness
·
A
lack of healthy boundaries
·
Persistent
confusion and frustration
·
Isolation
and avoidance
·
Self
loathing
·
Impulse
control involving alcohol, drugs, eating, and/or spending
·
Maladjusted
anger feelings
·
Unhappiness
and dissatisfaction
·
Anxiety
disorders, such as Generalized Anxiety Disorder and Post Traumatic Stress
Disorder
·
Poor
communication skills (Stout and Kipling, 2003)
The
Native Americans’ cultural development was severely disrupted by Christianity
and later on by not knowing how to get it back. Today, we experience glimpses
of our cultural identity through exposure to events such as Pow Wows and other
traditional cultural events, a rare occurrence for far too many. Many of the
Indian children who attended the boarding schools came from different tribal groups.
However, they were placed in these institutions and treated like they were all
the same. Many of these children came from distinctly different Native American
cultures. Oftentimes, they did not even share the same native language. The
differences created barriers to establishing a sense of connectedness while
attending these institutions. Language in itself is a very important means of
communi-cation with others. The ability to communicate in one’s own language as
well as the shared commonality of cultural practices was taken away from a
multitude of Native American people; thus, creating serious cultural
disturbance.
Cultural
disruption has created conditions of:
·
Loss
of faith and spiritual beliefs
·
Internalized
stereotypes
·
Surviving
instead of thriving
·
Cultural
isolation
·
Post
Traumatic Stress Disorder and other anxiety issues
·
Depression
(Stout and Kipling, 2003).
Intergenerational
impacts involved a multitude of circumstances such as when the British and
French pursued a vast amount of the North American territory and its resources which
in turn instilled further rivalry between opposing tribes due to the shrinking
of resources. During the fur trading era the relationship between the European
entrepreneurs and the Indians occurred under a drunken haze brought on by
alcohol for the unsuspecting tribal people. A drunken Indian was easier to
steal from and use than a sober one. Indian children were taken from their
parents and communities and placed in cruel and unyielding institutions
referred to as boarding schools.
Meanwhile, spiritual practices were outlawed so what did the parents of
these children do, they turned to alcohol for their source of comfort.
Acute traumatic events can occur
almost anywhere at any time, such as car accidents and natural disasters.
Conversely, chronic, long-term trauma occurs only in circumstances of captivity
in which the victim or victims are held prisoner. Think about the Native
American people who were sequestered to reservations and placed in boarding
schools. The children who were forced to attend boarding schools were punished
severely if they ran away. As mentioned earlier, physical, psychological and
sexual abuse occurred at these institutions on a regular basis.
The captivity of the children in the
boarding schools set up a situation of prolonged contact with the perpetrators creating
a special kind of relationship, one based on coercion. The psychological damage
of subordination to coercive control has common features such as diminished
self-esteem and depression. The perpetrators such as those in authority at the
boarding schools and those placed in control of carrying out the reservation
legislation became the most powerful people in the lives of the Indian people. The
mindset of the victims is shaped by the beliefs and actions of the
perpetrators. Often little is known about what is behind the beliefs and
actions of the perpetrator. However, one common denominator is the perpetrators
believe they are free from assuming any fault concerning any of their
wrongdoings. They place blame of any problems or issues they are facing on the
victims.
One
of the most disturbing discoveries was that often the perpetrators appear to be
normal to the rest of the world, beyond the abusive environment even though the
pathology practiced by the perpetrators was awful. Many sources portrayed perpetrators in prominent positions
such as doctors and lawyers. The pedophile priests often appear in the
limelight due to their public acts of generosity and good will. An idea deeply
troubling to most people. For example; Adolf Eichmann during Hitler’s reign committed
heinous crimes against humanity; however, a dozen psychiatrists diagnosed him as
normal. Eichmann served as the main drive behind the holocaust. He organized
and managed the arrangements for the deportation of many Jewish people to
ghettos and extermination camps.
The
perpetrators are often paranoid, and experience feelings of grandiosity,
feeling as if they can possess and conquer the world. They are aware of the
realities of power and social norms so they can fit in without being noticed.
The perpetrators seek out situations in which tyrannical behaviors are
tolerated, condoned and/or admired. Hitler set the stage for domination of the
Jewish people so I imagine Eichmann’s behaviors were admired by Hitler and
Hitler’s devoted followers. The abusive individuals at the boarding schools
were able to treat the children as if they were objects undeserving of respect.
No one stopped them.
Recently
some of the Catholic pedophile priests have been punished for their heinous
acts. Many of those who ran the prisoner of war camps and inflicted harsh
treatment on the prisoners had to answer for their crimes. What about the
people who wielded the harsh treatment on the children at the boarding schools?
The government made a formal apology for the treatment of the children who
attended the residential schools in Canada. There has been no acknowledgement
in the United States concerning the harmful acts wielded upon the Native
Americans due to the implementation of reservations and boarding schools.
The
perpetrators often demand from their victims respect, gratitude, and sometimes
love. For example, the pedophile nuns at
the Holy Childhood Boarding School in Harbor Springs, Michigan, would often
create a simulated loving situation with the boys they were having sexual
contact with. They would treat the boys as if they were in love with them.
Their advances would begin with kissing the boys and then they would bring
these boys to their bed-rooms to perform sexual acts. Many of the boys felt
aban-doned when the nuns moved onto other boys.
One
of the first goals of the perpetrators is to enslave the victim(s). They do so
by controlling all aspects of the victim’s life. But simple obedience
demonstrated by the victim is not enough, they move towards gaining the
victim’s validation and/or they humiliate the victim in some way. The
perpetrators use the victim’s feelings of shame to gain even more control over
them. Often the victims live in constant fear. The children were shown what it
was like to not be compliant by observing other children being physically and
emotionally abused in front of them at the boarding schools. They were punished
severely in front of their peers if they ran away from these cruel
institutions. Many of these children were also punished harshly if they were
caught speaking their native language.
The
children were often underfed at the boarding schools and a common punishment
involved sending chil-dren to bed without dinner. This control resulted in
physical debilitation through starvation.
Along with being hungry most of the time, the children were forced to
work extremely hard at the schools. They were expected to clean, cook, maintain
the grounds, farm, other miscellaneous duties and were expected to also attend
school instruction for a few hours a day. They were exhausted, hungry, and
abused.
Research
has been conducted concerning the aftereffects of the trauma faced by veterans
of war. The studies involved how the trauma faced by these veterans effect
their offspring. There have been
discoveries that the cells within the bodies of the veterans and their
offspring contain the memories of the trauma of being on active duty. Many of the Native American people today are
obese and as a result have been diagnosed with diabetes. Could this be the
result of their grandparents’ and parents’ starvation when they attended the
boarding schools or when they faced starvation on the reservations? We often
overeat if we don’t have a good relationship with food. If food was scarce for
our parents and/or grandparents, we may take on the scarcity way of thinking which
was passed down from one generation to the next and as a result overeat. The
higher levels of obesity within the Native American population may be
attributed to the quality of food many can afford.
Depression,
a result of historical trauma which exists for a multitude of Native Americans,
is a common response to oppression. Oppression is the result of an imbalance of
power in relationships. Depression equates to a discrepancy in interpersonal
relationships and also creates a chemical imbalance. Depression is anger turned
inward and it represents unaddressed anger. In other words, depression has
arisen in situations in which anger and aggression was suppressed due to fear. A
double edged sword is generated consisting of suppression of anger and
aggression coupled with chronic resentment. This dilemma contributes to
internal stress as well as adding to relationship conflicts that in the end fosters
additional stress.
Oppression
is usually evident in abusive inter-personal relationships such as the
relationship between the white settlers and Native Americans throughout
history; however, an extreme accumulation of stress can also become oppressive,
which in turn can lead to a response of defeat. We can feel trapped after
experiencing situations that feel inescapable, not just physically but also
psychologically. The intrusive symptoms of painful memories and strong emotions
can contribute to a sense of oppression. It is possible to have an oppressive
relationship with ourselves as a result of past destructive treatment. We may
be the target of our own anger, harsh criticism, and unrealistic demands,
adopting a defeated and indignant relationship with our-selves. A whole host of
problems can result from self-inflicted oppression as well as from the oppression
imposed by others.
The past of Indian children involved
censored and restricted communication while they attended the boarding schools.
The children were forced to remain quiet and stare straight ahead while they
were in school. They developed a method of communicating with their eyes when
outside of the classroom. They could speak volumes with eye contact amongst
their fellow peers. Again, these
children were punished, often severely, if they spoke their native language.
Speaking became a privilege which could not be practiced for much of the day
and into the evening, when they were working on their homework or completing
chores. Their communication with their parents through letters was censored. Many
Native American people may suffer from vast communication barriers today as a
result of Historical Trauma.
If Indian children were forced to
attend the boarding schools for long periods of time, they discovered that
communication with their families of origin was difficult to impossible when they
were finally permitted to return to their homes. Trust was one of the main
reasons why communication was difficult with their families. They were
strangers to their families because they were brainwashed into being something
they were not, Euro-American replicas and because of their long stay at these
institutions away from their families. Their parents and siblings, who did not
have the misfortune of attending these institutions, were worlds apart. These
children spoke differently, and often their appearance was dissimilar from the
rest of their family. They soon discovered they did not fit with their families
of origin, usually shortly after moving back home. Thus, many Native American
families were torn apart literally. Living on the fringe of both cultural
groups and in the effort to belong somewhere they would participate in
activities which brought them even more shame and feelings of despair. All
feelings attributed to historical trauma.
Historical
trauma has taken its toll on many Native Americans. The weapons of mass
destruction against the Indian people for centuries have been; but are not limited
to: small pox infestations and other acts of genocide; the introduction of
alcohol; broken treaties; forced attendance at boarding schools; enforcement of
reservation legislation; and mass sterilization. It is difficult to determine which losses
hurt the Native American people the most. With the vast amount of
discrimination, it would be amazing if Indian people have any self-esteem at
all. To make matters worse when things are in disarray for Native Americans,
blame has often been placed on the victims.
