The Early Fur-Trading Years

The history of wilderness travel represents a most enthrall-ling chapter in American history. From 1634 to 1850 the Michigan fur trade was a prominent business and control of such trade started when the French and the British decided to take part in this profitable business venture. Many battles were fought between various Indian tribes, between the British and the French, between the French and Indian tribes against the British and other Indian tribes, over the fur-trading business. Everybody wanted a piece of the lucrative market.

            At first the Indian people were duped into trading furs for mere trinkets and such. Then they demanded to trade for items such as guns and unfortunately rum and brandy, which became some of the main trade items. Many of the fur traders were of a rough sort, drinking plenty, beating on one another and the Indian people and defying  the laws of a civil society. Others delved into the wilderness to barter with the Indian people, adopt their ways and marry their daughters. 

            Different classes existed amongst the fur-trading population. There were the unlicensed trader, the coureurs de bois, the lawless trader, and the licensed traders. The number of men in this field increased considerably and the distinct classes of traders became more evident and more categories were created: bourgeois, the voyageur, the mangeurs-de-lard, the clerks, engages, hivernans or winterers. Many were employed by the large fur-trading companies.

            The Jesuits, or they were referred to as the black robe priests, did not endorse the use of alcohol as a trade item. Intoxicated Indians were unlikely candidates to be converted to Christianity. The Jesuits lobbied in Europe against the use of brandy and rum as trade commodities. Their lobbying efforts were generally unsuccessful. If French alcohol was prohibited, it would be substituted with alcoholic beverages supplied by British colonies.

            The Jesuits, followed the fur traders wherever they went. Both were interested in working with the Indian people. The Jesuits wanted the save the Indian people by converting them to Christianity and the fur traders wanted to obtain furs from them at the smallest cost possible. The fur traders were considered a bad influence on the naive tribal people.

            The daily life of a fur trader was somewhat mono-tonous and often filled with hardships. Their food and dress, recreation, methods of trade, character, and relation-ships with the Indian people has been a continuing point of interest. They had to be of a rugged sort, people who could withstand the elements of harsh weather, and life threatening obstacles such as hostile Indians, competing fur-traders, starvation and wild animals. If they had to portage their canoes, supplies, and packs of fur, they were expected to carry a pack of furs that weighed up to 90 pounds sometimes for great distances.

            Their food, which was not of variety, consisted of pemmican, pea soup, wild rice and lyed-corn. To prepare the corn, the corn was boiled in strong lye, then husk was removed, and the corn was washed and dried. It became soft and could be fried like rice. Pemmican was a dried meat, usually from deer, elk or bison. Later on beef was used to make pemmican also. Their daily routines consisted of paddling, hauling, and portaging for approximately 16 hours and then they would collapse from exhaustion. At night they slept by some small or large body of water with a gun by their side. Their coverings would be a blanket and perhaps some brush to add cushion to the hard surface of the ground. [i]

            What enticed these foreboding individuals into these dangerous hunting exploits? Was it the money, was it their relationship with the Indian people, or was it the sheer danger of it all? Men who could paddle, hunt, trap, and speak parts of the Indian tongue proved to be the heartiest of fur traders. These men were a combination of civilization and savagery with the latter being the most prominent. 

            The fur-trading business ended up being catastrophic for the Indian people. Not only was the beaver population depleted, the population of the native people was decreased considerably by the ravages of traders’ diseases to which they had no immunity. Smallpox was the number one killer, with measles, scarlet fever, diphtheria, typhus, whooping cough, and influenza following suit. Also, the fur trade created an upheaval of tribal communities as they fought one another and joined forces with European allies to gain control of land bases and its resources.[ii]  

            

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xxxi  Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Amherst, Jeffery, 1^st Baron Amherst. Retrieved on September 25, 2014 from

[ii] Conlan, R. (1994). People of the Lakes: The Native Americans. Virginia:  Time-Life Education, 133.http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/amherst_jeffery_4E.

Written by Sharon Brunner. This information was taken from the book Shadow Travelers.

Frogs

Note: I decided to provide the information from this site because it gave the history as well as other pertinent information. I watched a documentary covering very interesting information about frogs on PBS. Their mating rituals, the way they change to adjust to their environment from the coloring of their skin to the way their eyes work to enable them to adapt to their environment is very interesting. They have been around for a very long time. 

Frogs are tail-less amphibians (class Amphibia, order Anura). With some 3,500 living species, frogs are the most numerous and best known of amphibians. They are found on all continents except Antarctica and are common on many oceanic islands. The terms "frog" and "toad" are derived from early usage in England and northern Europe, where two families of the order Anura occur. One includes slender, long-legged, smooth-skinned animals that live near water: frogs; the other includes short-legged warty animals that live in fields and gardens: toads. When other kinds of animals of this group were discovered elsewhere, such as tree-frogs, fire-bellied toads, and others, it was realized that these various forms actually represented one major group. This group, the anurans, is now commonly referred to as frogs.
Frogs are amphibians, a term derived from two Greek words: amphi meaning double and bios meaning life. The double life of frogs involves living in water and also on land. Because of this amphibious habit, they must have adaptations for each environment. As in other animals that have a separate larval stage and a complex life cycle, frogs have two extremely different morphologies.

species calls eggs rana

Like other amphibians, such as salamanders (order Caudata) and caecilians (order Gymnophiona), most frogs hatch from a shell-less egg into a gilled, water-dwelling, larval stage (a tadpole). After a period of growth they metamorphose into the adult form. Most species of tadpoles are vegetarians, feeding upon algae and other plant material. All adult frogs, however, are carnivores, most of them feeding upon insects and other invertebrates.

In the temperate zones of the world the breeding season begins in the spring, but the precise time depends upon the species of frog. In much of temperate North America, for example, the beginning of springtime is proclaimed by the breeding calls of chorus frogs (Pseudacris spp.). Their high trills are soon followed by the calls of the spring peeper (Hyla crucifer). These may be followed by the rasping calls of the wood frog (Rana sylvatica), the leopard frog (Rana pipiens), and the green frog (Rana clamitans). Then the American toad (Bufo americanus) trills in, and when the larger ponds eventually warm up, the bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) begins its booming jug-of-rum calls. As many as 16 different species of frogs have been found calling at various times at a single pond in Florida.
The males of each frog species have their own distinctive call. It has recently been found that the ear of the female is "tuned" to the call of her own species, so that not only is she not attracted to the calls other species, she may not even hear them! A female carrying eggs will typically approach a calling male of her choice (and of her species), and nudge him. He immediately ceases calling and grasps her around the waist. They enter the water (if they are not already in it), and as she expels eggs from her cloaca, the male sprays sperm over them. Depending upon the species, the eggs may appear in strings, in clusters, or as individual ova.

The eggs are enclosed in a protective jelly coating, and will develop over several days to a week into a tadpole. The tadpole will grow over a period of time (weeks, months, or years, depending upon the species), and ultimately sprouts legs, changes other elements of its external and internal morphology, and emerges as a small replica of the adult.

This sequence is typical of frogs living in temperate regions. In the tropics breeding is often initiated by a change in weather (such as dry to wet), the calling males may be on the moist forest floor or in a tree, theA lesser gray treefrog (Hyla versicolor) at Mahn-Go-Ta-See Camp, Michigan. The lesser gray is the most widely distributed of the 13 species of North American tree frogs. Photograph by Robert J. Huffman. Field Mark Publications. Reproduced by permission.eggs may be laid on foliage or beneath a rock or in a pond, and the tadpole stage may be completed inside the egg capsule, so that froglets appear directly from the egg. In other words, there is enormous variation in breeding habits, particularly in the tropics.

Source:
<a href="http://science.jrank.org/pages/2864/Frogs-Life-history-behavior.html">Frogs - Life History And Behavior</a>

Read more: Frogs - Life History And Behavior - Species, Calls, Eggs, and Rana - JRank Articles http://science.jrank.org/pages/2864/Frogs-Life-history-behavior.html#ixzz4V1Nlkhqi-Life-history-behavior.html#ixzz4V1NUSJGL

rticles http://science.jrank.org/pages/2868/Frogs.html#ixzz4V1Qo2BbF

Columbus

After Columbus’ arrival to the Western Hemisphere others followed suit, and millions were dehumanized, families torn apart, societies collapsed and civilizations destroyed as the result of colonization.  Mankind still suffers from the effects of the racist ideology that justified slavery, assimilation, discrimination, and genocide.  For more than 500 years, the dominant culture has practiced discrimination and segregation based on skin color and gender, which in turn has prevented unity and has aided them to maintain power and control.  With every dark cloud, there is often a silver lining.  Much can be learned from the mistakes of the past.  As a result of past acts of destruction, it has been discovered that the Native American population has demonstrated extreme resilience.

            Europe during the 1400s was a tumultuous place laced with corruption, greed and pandemonium. The population of Europe was sparse compared with that of today and was under the rule of kings and feudal governments.  The aftereffects of the ruins of the Roman Empire blanketed Western Europe.  Muslim rule prevailed in Spain from 756 until the 1400s.  As a result, the Spaniards developed a formidable and brutal military culture to counteract the control of their opponents, the Muslims. Around the same time, the Catholic Church exercised monumental power across the majority of the European continent. During the enduring relationship between the Church and the Roman Empire, the elite took pride in defining themselves as superior, segregating themselves from non-Christian societies in and out of Europe.  Christian and Muslim religious practices endemic in Europe during this time period were militant. 

The Muslims were more tolerant of the Christians than the Christians were of them.  The Muslims recognized their religious beliefs were based on Judaic traditions, and had similarities to Christianity.  Both acknowledged Christ as a prophet and a conveyance of universal truth as revealed by God.  According to the Muslims, it was their duty, as it was for Christians, to inform all humanity of the divine message.  The struggle between the Muslims and Spaniards endured for nearly seven centuries and established the Europeans’ insight of how they should deal with non-Europeans.  The Muslims constructed a formidable military force with the collaboration of many Muslim groups that led the way to controlling a major port city, Constantinople, in 1453.  The takeover of Constantinople paved the way to Muslim rule over much of Eastern Europe.

During this time of unrest, Christopher Columbus was born to an Italian weaver in 1451. Throughout much of his lifetime, Columbus became a man of deep-seated convictions.  Columbus possessed strong Christian beliefs. He also believed he could travel west from Spain and reach Japan and China and held onto these convictions up until his death.  For years he was persistent with trying to convince rulers of various countries in Europe to fund his expedition. He was not able to persuade the king of Portugal, or the rulers of England and France to fund his first voyage and spent years trying to convince Ferdinand and Isabella, rulers of Spain. The Spaniards and other European countries were preoccupied with taking over specific ports and land holdings from the Muslims.

            Eventually, the Spaniards started experiencing military success and captured the port of Seville.  A link to the continent of Africa was established, forming a base for trade and served as a conduit for expeditions against the Arabs in the Mediterranean area.  In 1469, the marriage between Ferdinand and Isabella consolidated the armed forces of Castile and Aragon leading to the final annihilation of the Moors.  The last Moorish king submitted to the rule of the Spaniards. Then the Spaniards overtook Grenada. Columbus was witness to this takeover in 1492.

On March 31, 1492, Ferdinand and Isabella strived to strengthen Christian influence in their kingdom by banishing Jews from Spain. The queen’s ruling applied to 300,000 Jewish people who did not practice Christianity. Many of the Jewish people avoided extradition by professing the Catholic faith.  After the ruling was enforced, Jewish people suspected of infidelity concerning the Church were referred to as “marranos” meaning pigs.  New laws were put into place and as a result Jewish blood was considered at fault for their Christian infidelity.  Because they were tainted due to their bloodline, their sinfulness could not be eliminated by baptism. Thus, the Jewish people needed to be banished. 

During this time of religious unrest, Columbus finally persuaded Ferdinand and Isabella to fund his first voyage. The rulers wanted to convert the natives to Christianity and the thought of a source of untapped wealth was another reason why they agreed to support Columbus in his ventures. He insisted on being appointed viceroy, meaning governor, of the newly discovered lands and demanded ten percent of the gold, spices, and trade that he found. 

Columbus was never fully aware of the significance of his discovery.  It was the precious metals and other finds that led to the rise of European capitalism in the newly discovered land.  As a result, there was a gradual transfer of political and economic power from Europe to the Americas.  Columbus made three additional voyages to unchartered lands before he was forced to retire because he lost his foothold with the ruling class.  Columbus spent his last lonely years in Spain before his death in 1506. 

            Towards the end of the 1400s, a belief existed of a land resembling paradise far to the east of Europe. Mystical wonders like the biblical Eden and the fountain of youth were believed to exist.  It was believed these faraway lands were free from the strife the Europeans faced at home.  Initially, Columbus referred to the people he discovered in the Western Hemisphere as children of God. Columbus imagined his good fortune led him to the “Golden Age.”  He wrote to his royal patrons after meeting the first inhabitants of the newly discovered land:

            “So tractable, so peaceable are these people, that I swear to your Majesties there is no better nation on earth.  They love their neighbors as themselves, and their discourse is ever sweet so and gentle, accompanied with a smile, and though it is true that they are naked, their manners are decorous and praiseworthy.”

            The “Columbus as the discoverer” myth that has been passed down to the present day propagated the belief of which voices were to be listened to and which were to be ignored. Columbus never set foot on North American soil. The native peoples of the Caribbean, the discovered, were later portrayed as lacking feelings or thoughts.  To explain as simply as possible, what happened over five hundred years ago was a group of heavily armed Europeans invaded a country to claim and control the lands of a large group of people, the indigenous.  

            Columbus found that riches were not readily obtainable, and did not want to return to Spain empty handed during his first voyage.  He took it upon himself to capture many of the native people and take them back to Spain, hopeful of making a profit.  A massive raid was conducted and 1,500 Arawaks [Tainos] were abducted. Men, women and children were imprisoned in pens, which were guarded by men and dogs.  Columbus’ ships could not carry more than 500 slaves so only the ones considered the most valuable were loaded aboard.  The Admiral told those under his command they could do what they wished with the remaining captives.  The native people who were not wanted for any purpose were released and they ran in all directions like lunatics, women dropping their infants in the rush, running for miles without stopping, fleeing across rivers and mountains. The terror inflicted on them is unimaginable.

            Of the 500 slaves taken to Spain, only 300 arrived alive. They were put up for sale in Seville by Don Juan de Fonseca, the archdeacon of the town.  The slave trade proved to be unprofitable because so many of the slaves died.  Columbus turned his focus to obtaining large amounts of gold. However, he continued to make the tribal inhabitants, slaves for his own use or to be sold, which in itself demonstrated that these native people possessed little or no value to the Spaniards.

            The beliefs of the native people presented a paradoxical point of view to the Europeans.  One side demonstrated a people who did not live within the confines of a civil society, lacking the concepts of marriage, property and law.  Common ownership and a lack of selfishness are also trademarks associated with innocence and natural virtue. The laws that beset civility defined the boundaries between what was considered a savage existence and that of civilized society. The heightened awareness of these differences created confusion concerning people of color when the Spaniards discovered the New World.  Many circumstances, such as the Black Death, military conflicts and the shift towards a market economy, also led Europeans to adopt a highly competitive mindset.

            Bartolome’ de Las Casas was disheartened when he heard of the brutal treatment and exploitation inflicted on the native people.  He based his beliefs on what he thought needed to occur in the new land, which involved the spreading of their interpretation of God’s word. According to Las Casas, that was why God permitted the discovery of this foreign land.  He devoted his life to serving as an advocate for Indian people.[i] However, there were stronger powers at play overriding his efforts.

            In 1493, before the Pope turned over South America to the Spaniards, he gave them a proclamation. The Spanish conquistadores were ordered to read this declaration to the native people mandating that they should:

            “… Recognize the Church as your Mistress and as Governess of the World and Universe, and the High Priest, called the Pope, in her name, and His Majesty in        Her place, as Ruler and Lord King…

            And if you do not do this… with the help of God I shall come mightily against you, and I shall make war on you everywhere and in every way that I can, and I shall subject you to the yoke and obedience of the Church and His Majesty, and I shall seize your women and children, and I shall make them slaves, to sell and dispose of as His Majesty commands, and I shall do all the evil and damage to you that I am able.  And I insist that the deaths and destruction that result from this will be your fault.”

            This document removed all responsibility from the Spaniards and gave them authorization to do whatever they felt necessary to conquer and exploit the native people.  Thus heinous atrocities were inflicted in the name of Christianity with the Pope’s blessing.

The takeover of native land and resources continued after Columbus made his discoveries. From 1519 to 1521 Hernando Cortes and 400 Spaniards set foot on the Yucatan peninsula in Mexico.  These Spaniards defeated an empire of 200,000 Aztecs.  At the time of this invasion, 50,000 Aztec men were prepared for battle.  The takeover was possibly made feasible by a rumor that Montezuma believed Cortes was the god Quetzalcoatl and that was how Cortes became feared and gained so much power over the Aztecs. This was the first time the Aztecs were exposed to horses and firearms.  Another explanation for the depletion of the Aztec population involved disease, possibly after he obtained notoriety as their new found god. Cortez and the other Spaniards gave the Aztecs small pox infested blankets. 

            Columbus was following the instructions of the rulers of Spain and the Church.  It has been extremely difficult to fathom that they felt it necessary to wield such brutality on people who welcomed them into their country.  Gaining a better understanding of the mindset of the European culture with their strong competitive and military attitudes of this time period may help make things more comprehensible.

As much as Columbus’ actions appear deplorable, his actions did represent the mindset of the religious, political and economic forces of that time period.  Celebrating Columbus’ discovery has provided validation for the abuse of the Western Hemisphere’s native people, the destruction of their societies, and the brutal enslavement of many people of color. Today, many tribal communities use Columbus Day as a day of mourning concerning what happened to their ancestors and to celebrate their unity against the oppression of the Euro-American culture. Another thing to celebrate is the 500 plus years of resistance.          


Written by Sharon Brunner

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