Traditional Child Rearing Practices (Ojibwe)

            Children were considered a precious gift given to them by the Creator. They were protected and guided through all their life stages. Traditional Indian people were not known to have large families, usually two to three children. Some of the reasons they limited the amount of children they had was their ability to feed and provide for their children and they did not want to bring up children in a world that may be laced with battles. If there was a possible battle brewing between another tribal community or others such as Euro-Americans, they held off from procreating. It was important their children grew up in a safe world.

The most important event in an Indian child’s life was, and continues to be with many tribal communities, the receipt of personal identity through a naming ceremony.  The given name permitted the child to have a place by the tribal fire and be a part of the tribal thoughts and discussions. The name was a gift from the spirits, inherited through a naming ceremony by the person bestowing the name, usually soon after the child’s birth.  The given name was to be respected for its origin within the tribe and cherished by the one receiving it.  The children’s names would come to the leaders and other adults in the village through dreams and visions.  Sometimes children would receive the name of a namesake who passed on.  Two people in the same village could not have the same name simultaneously (Densmore, 1979).

Equally important as the child’s name was their family’s clan affiliation. Parents and other adults raised children under the guidance and leadership of their specific clans. The establishment of the clan system gave the tribal communities a governmental system which provided strength and order. There were seven original clans with natural abilities:

Crane – Chieftanship

Loon – Chieftanship

Fish – Intellectuals

Bear – Police and Herbal Medicine People

Deer – Gentle People

Martin – Warriors

Bird – Spiritual Leaders (Benton-Banai, 1979)

            Dreams were considered significant, so children were taught at an early age how to take notice of them.  By examining their dreams closely, predictions of good and bad events and other necessary information could be derived. While they were still innocent, they were encouraged to walk alone in the woods to commune with their spirit guides.  Their faces were blackened with coal before they ventured on this journey.  Fasting also occurred during the time the young men and women were coming of age to assist with seeking direction for their adult years.

            Children were taught to watch, listen and respect the “spirit of the woods.” Adults informed them about what to watch for while in the woods. They need to watch for warnings and a warning may appear as a small branch falling in front of them warning them of danger. The wood spirit was considered a friendly guardian (Densmore, 1979).

The child and mother were inseparable for the first year of the child’s life. During the traditional period, the educational process occurred in three phases.  In phase one, a child would be strapped onto a cradle board, referred to as a dikinagan, for most of the child’s first two years to learn the life skills of observation and listening.  They watched the adults in the village work and learned about the habits of people and animals. Their observation skills were enhanced as they matured from infant to a young child.  Surrounded by nature, they observed and listened to the communication between animals and people. The art of listening was fostered further through seeking wisdom on their search to learn the deeper meaning of things.  Listening and observation skills were held in high regard with many Indian people.

The second phase began at approximately age seven. From one year of age until adulthood, girls were cared for and nurtured by their mothers, grandmothers, and aunts.   All female adults in the village, other than their mothers, were considered aunts, and all these caregivers provided training to prepare them for adulthood. They received training on how to raise crops, to gather plants and berries for food, and to provide other necessities for the home. Another lesson involved how to make nets for fishing.  The making of fishing nets consisted of gathering basswood or nettle cord, learning how to dry these materials, separating the fibers by wetting them and drawing the fibers through their mouths, how to roll the fibers, and how to tie the netting fiber in different patterns to enable the fisherman to catch different kinds of fish. 

Young women were trained on how to tan animal hides, which included the removal of flesh, washing off the blood stains, soaking the hide, scraping off the fur, soaking the hide in deer brains, scraping the hide again, and then stretching the hide on a wooden frame. Tribal women also needed to learn how to use the bow and arrow so they could provide protection for the children and themselves when the men were away on hunting expeditions.  Many tribal women were proficient in hunting and fishing.

            At the age of seven, fathers, uncles, and older male cousins provided boys with lessons on hunting and fishing.  Concerning the construction of canoes, boys were taught how to remove bark from birch trees and how to shape the wood for flooring and gunwales.  They were given instruction about how to gather and combine spruce resin with grease and black powder of cedar to coat the canoe as an adhesive and sealant.  Another important lesson involved learning how to make bows and arrows used in hunting. When the young male had his first successful kill, the whole village celebrated. The kill was served as the main part of the feast.

            The third phase of the educational process consisted of the search for wisdom.  The search extended into late adulthood.  This involved a quest to know the entire story of things, events and happenings from the simplest to the most complex, and through the many layers of meaning (Hilger, 1992).

            The elders, adult males and females provided teachings to prepare the youth for their path in life.  It was important to learn how to live in a gentle way with humbleness and respect accomplished through prayer, fasting, and listening to everything. The beliefs associated with the path of life included the following:

·         Honor Gitchi Manito (The Creator).

·         Honor elders.

·         Honor our elder brothers (all animals are considered to be elder brothers because they were here before humans, and they are relied on for teachings, as well as for sustenance).

·         Honor women.

·         Keep promises and uphold pledges.

·         Show kindness to everyone.

·         Be peaceful in body and spirit.

·         Be courageous.

·         Be moderate in dreams, thoughts, words and deeds (Peacock and Wisuri, 2002).

            Children were disciplined in many ways.  They were ignored if they were tale bearing, and scolded if caught lying.  Stealing usually resulted in the child returning the stolen object to the person it was stolen from.  Older children often received spankings for stealing.  Sometimes fear was used, but not to the extent that it was harmful to the children.  Instilling fear about certain things was often a safety measure.  For example, to prevent children from playing on a hill that was considered dangerous, the parents would put a scarecrow at the top of the hill to scare them, and the children never went back to the hill again (Hilger, 1992).

Boys and girls could play together when they were younger, but as they matured, it was not allowed. The children would copy the adults doing various chores, such as housekeeping, caring for dolls, hunting, fishing, and dancing to prepare them for adulthood.  All age groups participated in a variety of games of chance and games involving dexterity, such as lacrosse.  The use of games served as a part of the learning process.

            The Anishanaabeg, like other cultures, had a creation story that was continually recited to provide lessons for all tribal people including their children.  In the beginning, Gitchi Manito created the universe as we know it today. He created Grandfather Sun and Grandmother Moon, Mother Earth and Father Sky. On the earth, he created all things, living and nonliving. He created life on the earth, in the sky, and in the water. He created the plants, rivers, four-legged and winged creatures, and the swimmers. After this was done, he created one of the greatest mysteries of all, the four seasons, to bring harmony and balance to all.
            After all creation of animate and inanimate entities was completed, then the Creator made man. After he created the first Anishanaabe, the Creator instructed him in a dream to name all things in the language given to him, Anishinaabemowin. The first man went about his journey and named all things he saw, the animals, insects, birds and fish. He told Gitchi Manito in a dream he finished what was requested of him. Then the Creator gave the first man his name, which was Nanaboozho. Whenever the Anishanaabeg meet and greet one another, they say a part of his name, Boozhoo, meaning hello.
            The creation story tells how the Anishanaabeg originally migrated to the Great Lakes region from the East Coast. The Anishanaabeg resided peacefully until the villagers became restless and unsettled.  Selfishness and competitiveness took over the lives of these inhabitants. The Anishanaabeg were at war with one another and they were not on the red road.  Hatred and other forms of dysfunction ran rampant through the entire Anishanaabeg nation.  The creator looked down at these settlements and decided to cleanse the earth with water to renew the earth, its inhabitants and begin anew. Many creation stories contain a flood as a part of the cleansing process.

            After this cleansing, Nanaboozho found refuge on a log with many animals. All of these animals tried to swim to the bottom to retrieve a piece of dirt to rebuild a land base. Many of them tried and failed. Then, the smallest, weakest of the four-leggeds was able to accomplish what the other animals could not.  That animal was the muskrat. However, the muskrat gave its life to bring up the dirt, which saved all the other animals and Nanaboozoo. The muskrat’s lifeless body floated to the top of the water with the dirt clenched within his little hand. Nanaboozoo placed this dirt on the turtle’s back and created the land, which today is referred to as Turtle Island (Benton-Benai, 1979).  The telling of creation stories and story-telling has carried significance throughout the history of the Anishanaabeg.

            Ceremonies were held to celebrate various stages in the lives of the Anishanaabeg:

Ghost suppers were held to honor those who passed on. The ghost supper has been a traditional fall ceremony of Anishanaabeg people throughout history. The time when leaves are falling on the ground was considered a time for remembering and honoring those who walked on. The ghost supper has been held in many different ways.  One common denominator includes the serving of the favorite foods of the ones who are being remembered.  Usually a place is set at the table for the one(s) who passed on.  The plate was fixed with a variety of the loved one’s favorite foods and left for the entire evening. 

            Ancestry has been paramount for Anishanaabeg people.  Ghost suppers served as an avenue for family stories and fond memories of the deceased.  Families would visit another’s home and eat the food they prepared. Then that family would be invited to their home and so on.  This fostered community awareness, and encouraged community trust and sharing. 

The sweat lodge ceremony was another way Indian people united for a common purpose, which was to commune with the Creator and other spirit guides. The sweat lodge ceremony served as a vehicle to give thanks, and pray to Gitchi Manito and the attendees’ spirit guides.  These ceremonies continue to be held today. 

The purpose of the Mediwiwin was taught to the children which included that life was enhanced by living right and by the proper use of herbs. Respect of the Mediwiwin was emphasized. A person’s conduct determined their length of life. Evil actions created problems for the offenders. No person escapes the consequences of their sins. The rite of initiation instilled a specific “spirit power” of the candidate and that person was expected to renew their spirit power at the annual ceremony of the society (Densmore, 1979).

            Children learned from elders and other adults about the four sacred plants, which were used in many of the spiritual ceremonies. Four sacred medicines had provided balance, protection and cures for the Anishanaabeg and other cultures throughout history. The four sacred plants are tobacco, sage, sweet grass and cedar. The plants carry much significance, such as their representation of the four directions and the four stages in one’s life. The four sacred plants have been used throughout history in spiritual and healing practices.  Other herbs and spices were also used under the direction of a medicine man and other spiritual healers. 

            The four sacred plants are often utilized in sweat lodge ceremonies, pow wows, ghost suppers, naming ceremonies and other spiritual practices.  The four sacred plants complete the circle of life. Their smoke can provide cleansing for the mind, body and spirit.  They can remove negative energy and refresh those who use them. It has been very important for the Anishanaabeg and other cultural groups to bestow gratitude for all the Great Mystery has provided to them.  Keeping the idea of gratitude in their minds and the proper use of all the sacred plants helps those who use these sacred plants to convey their personal meaning of thankfulness.

           

The purpose of traditional Ojibwe educational practices was to prepare the young people to provide for the needs of the community.  Children were also taught how to develop a meaningful relationship with the Great Mystery. These teachings were part of the balance of their life journeys and beyond into eternity.  If one only learned about life skills without the benefit of obtaining knowledge about the spirit, it was believed this individual would live a life without purpose or any significant meaning. The entire village provided care, supervision, and instruction to the children.  Essentially, all adults were responsible for the security and protection of all the children. 

References

Benton-Banai, E. (1979). The Mishomis Book: The Voice of the Ojibway. Minnesota:

            Indian Country Press, Inc.

Densmore, F. (1979). Chippewa Customs. Minnesota: Minnesota Historical Society Press.

Hilger, I. (1992). Chippewa Child Life and Its Cultural Background. Minnesota: Minnesota

            Historical Society Press.

Kubiak, W. (1999). Great Lakes Indians: A Pictorial Guide. Michigan: Baker Books.

Peacock, T. and Wisuri, M. (2008). Ojibwe: Waasa Inaabidaa – We Look in All Directions.

            Minnesota: Afton Historical Society Press.

Time Life Books – Editors (ND). People of the Great Lakes. Virginia: Time Life Books.

Slavery in America

An unimaginable Slavery tragedy befell the African people. On a sunny day, a Dutch ship set anchor on the shores near a small village Africa. The native people watched from the lush green ferns as the visitors walked onto the shore. They had a strange vessel. One they haven’t seen the likes of before. The visitors were carrying large shiny objects that gleamed in the sunlight. They had to shield their eyes against the brightness. Bubu, one of the tribal leaders, pointed to the leader of the intruders. He thought the stranger had a suspicious nature about him. All the native people who were watching the interlopers were wondering if they came in peace. They crept back to their village to warn the others and prepare for the invasion.

            The villagers had spears designed from long poles with a chiseled stone attached to the end of the poles which were usually used to hunt small animals. They felt as ready as they could possibly be to greet the new arrivals. Their numbers greatly outnumbered the number of the visitors by at least fifty to one. The strangers were quickly approach-ing their village. The women and children were told to hide in the jungle and wait for a sign that it was safe for them to come out of hiding. They were experiencing fear about the intruders. Their visitors were only a few yards from the village.

            Bubu became one of the leaders of the village because of his brave hunting skills and his ability to make good decisions for the village. Bubu approached the Dutch leader and bowed down to the visitor. The Dutch leader, named John, returned the bow and put his hand out for Bubu to shake. Bubu did not know what to do about such a behavior so he backed up and looked John straight in his eyes to gain clarity about what John’s expectations were. John smiled and pulled his hand away.

            John towered over Bubu. His long blond hair and blue eyes stood out amongst the tribal men. All of the Dutch men in John’s party were taller than the tribal men. They had ruddy complexions which was different from the smooth dark skin of the native people.

            The group of tribal men motioned the Dutch men to join them around the fire. They tried to ask what the Dutch men wanted but were not getting through to their visitors, language barriers.

            The native men offered the Dutch men a mixture of bambara beans and corn on banana leaves. The travelers were hungry so they ate hurriedly. They were given bananas which they ate quickly, also. Their food was washed down with coconut milk. Their stomachs started cramping from the strange food and they took turns disappearing into the jungle to relieve themselves.

            The Dutch men started drawing pictures in the sandy ground in an attempt to communicate. They drew pictures of jewelry and precious stones. The tribal men looked confused. They pointed to the shiny stone Bubu was wearing. Bubu was wearing an African agate that was attached to a thin bamboo strip. Bubu looked confused and led John to his hut to show him another jade stone. John smiled and picked up the stone and examined it. It appear-

ed to be the real thing, a jade stone which would probably be considered valuable in the Netherlands. Again, John drew pictures of caves and the jungle trying to ask where to find such treasures. Bubu did not know how to respond.

            John was becoming more and more impatient. He knew getting angry was not going to solve his dilemma but he couldn’t help himself. They have been traveling for days on the open seas and were weary. The men from his party were feeding off his anger. They walked towards their boat and discussed what to do about the problem. They decided to use trickery and lure the villagers into the jungle to show them where they got the stones. They longed for their trip to be profitable and worth their while. Precious stones would be the ticket.

            They went back to the boats to get gifts for the villagers, they returned with a couple of woolen sacks and a small metal cup to offer as a gift. The villagers were ecstatic to receive such gifts. John pointed to Bubu’s necklace again and tried to ask where to get such stones. Bubu looked confused and then he led John and the rest of the party to an area where a large volcano was located. Bubu bowed to the volcano. John gave Bubu a strange look wondering what he was doing. John was led to a lava zone area. He could see large chunks of rounded nodules or geodes that appeared like large shiny rocks.

            Agates were the oldest stones recorded in history and have been used for thousands of years for various reasons. Some have used agates to provide protection for themselves or others and the stones were believed to have magical powers. Agates have been known throughout history to be used to ward off storms. If an agate was placed on a person’s head, the person would have abounding and diverse dreams. Dreams were used to predict future events and provide protection. The stones were known to draw strength, offer protection from nightmares, stress and protect people from having their energy drained from their bodies. The villagers were leery about giving up their precious gems to outsiders. They were hopeful the interlopers would not be interested in taking a vast amount of their precious gems.

            Henry, one of the Dutch men, decided to take a large rock and try chipping away at the shiny surface to see if he could remove some of the agate material. The gray, brown and red circular designs mesmerized the visitors. They were wondering if they were standing in an area filled with lots of opportunity to amass wealth. Larks were making a cloaking sound to warn the other larks that they may be danger. The volcano was covered in thick lush underbrush. A puff of smoke rose from the opening at the top. The visitors looked at each other wondering if the volcano was going to erupt.

            John said, “perhaps we need to cut our visit a little short. I am afraid that volcano is going to erupt.”

            Many of the Dutch men nodded in agreement.

            The Dutch voyagers were looking for something valuable to bring back to their home country which was the town of Jamestown, Virginia. They were involved in the starting of a new tobacco business. The Native Americans who lived in the area provided them with tobacco seeds. They discovered it was a hardy plant that grew quite well in the climate and terrain of Virginia. If they could not carry a lot of the precious agates back to their boat, perhaps they needed to take a different route.

            They requested the tribal men to assist them with carrying the agates back to their boats. The tribal men helped carry some of the stones. The voyagers were getting weary and wanted to rest for the evening. One of the men laid on the ground and pretended he was sleeping when they returned to the tribal encampment. They were given bamboo mats and were instructed to sleep near the fire.

            The children and women came out of hiding and sat off in distance while they ate their dinner. The tribal men joined them.

            Once nightfall hit and the sky was littered with stars, everyone was sleeping soundly.

            The next day, the sun was shining. The tribal people rose and some of the women rebuilt the community fire. The men were cutting strange plants, pineapple. They offered the visitors some of the fruit.

            “This is really good. I wonder what we are eating,” said John.

            “I like it too,” replied Henry.

            “We should try to take some of this back with us,” said John.         

            John rounded up his men and shared his plan.

            “What do you think about bringing back cheap labor to work the tobacco fields. That will free us to do more important things like build up our business and explore other trades. I don’t know about you, but I would love to line my pockets with more money.”

            “What do you have in mind,” asked Henry.

            “I am thinking about taking some of these strong native men and perhaps some of the women so they can produce more workers for us,” replied Shawn.

            “That sounds like a plan. How do you plan on pulling that off,” asked Peter, another Dutchman.

            “Let’s lure at least 20 onto our ship under the pretense that we want to show them something,” said John.

            Charles smiled and said, “I like how you think.”

            Twenty-five native men and women followed the Dutchmen onto their ship and they led them to the bottom of the ship. The Dutchmen pulled out their swords from their leather straps and ordered them to stay. The Dutchmen locked the bunker and placed a large chest on top of the trap door.

            The conditions for the slaves while held captive in the bunker were horrible. They received very little water and food. The food they did receive was rancid. Rats scurried about trying to steal what little food the prisoners received. While they slept, the rats fed on their flesh. The captives were covered with rat bites, starving and some faced the hardships of influenza, pneumonia and dysentery. Two women and three men died on the journey from Africa to Jamestown, Virginia, a British colony.

            At their village in Africa, many of the villagers searched high and low for their missing people. Lots of tears were shed. They looked in caves and walked for miles in the jungle surrounding the village. They finally had to admit their loved ones were taken by the visitors because they were missing, also. They were surprised after treating the strangers with kind hospitality that they would take their people. They wondered if they went willingly or were they forced. They had no idea they were going to lose part of their families, friends and comrades. It felt like a huge hole was dug in the center of the village, an abyss. They lost their tribal leader, Bubu, and some of their most fierce warriors and hunters.

            Upon the arrival at the port in Jamestown, the voyagers were weary from the long journey and were very happy to see land. The prisoners were left on board the ship until they could secure housing for them. John approached the local jail to see if the prisoners could be held in custody until they were sold to the highest bidders.

            “John, I think I want to have a beer before I meet with the jailor,” said Henry.

            “A tall one sounds good to me, also,” replied Samuel, another voyager.

            “Look, Edward is standing at the bar,” said John.

            John approached Edward, the jailor, and asked him if he could buy him a beer. Edward accepted the offer.

            “We just docked our boat and we have a question for you,” said John.

            The other men stood watching John.

            “We have some prisoners we took back with us from Africa and we need a place for them to stay until some of them are sold as slaves to the plantation owners and we can prepare a place for them to stay on our properties,” said John.

            “How many are we talking about?” asked Edward.

            “About 20 or so,” replied John.

            “What’s in it for me?” asked Edward.

            “You mean payment for storing them?” asked John.

            “Yes. You know I will have to feed them and clean up after them,” replied Edward.

            “How about we give you a percentage of what we make from selling them. Let’s say 20 percent or maybe you can look them over and take one of them,” replied John.

            “I would like to look them over before making up my mind.”

            “Fair enough.”

            “The deal is done. I think we may need to have them take a dip in the river before we lock them up in jail. Clean them up a bit and make them look more presentable.”

            “I think that’s a good idea. We may need to find them some clothes to wear, some clean clothes,” said Henry.

            “I  am going to sneak into some of the yards and steal clothes off the clothes lines,” said Samuel.

            “Why don’t you go and do that right now. Take some of your buddies with you,” ordered John.

            “I want to unload the heathens as soon as possible,” said Bernard, another voyager.

            “Did you catch the smell of the bunker when I opened the door this morning to throw them some grub?” asked Samuel.

            “We are going to have to use buckets of lye to get rid of the stench,” replied Samuel.

            Samuel, Peter and George found a variety of clothing when they raided homes when the owners were out and they also stole clothing off clothes lines. The thin sheaths, knickers and shirts were in decent condition.

            The dead captives were thrown in the James River. The prisoners were ordered to remove the loin cloths and grass skirts they were wearing. They did not understand the order so their garments were stripped off of them. They stood shivering in the cool breeze during the early morning hours. The Dutchmen carried flintlock muskets as they walked behind the prisoners. They were ordered to climb into the river and scrub their bodies and hair with sand and pebbles. The clothes they confiscated were put on the distraught captives. Many of them had given up any hope of freedom and followed commands obediently. They appeared to have lost every ounce of hope.

            Luna, one of the prisoners, was in her first trimester of pregnancy. She was heaving on the sandy shore. Henry hit her on her back by using the end of his musket to get her moving up the path to the town. Tears started streaming down her cheeks. Henry hit her again. Bo, another captive, looked angrily at Henry and then turned away before he was caught doing so.

            The prisoners were marched to the jail for Edward to view and make his decision.

            Edward asked if the women could remove their clothing. Samuel stripped the six women of their clothing. Edward picked a young woman with long black hair and her skin was the color of dark molasses. She was slender and had long dark eye lashes. She had long slender legs and small breasts. She was a beautiful young woman of 13 years of age. The average marrying age of women in Jamestown was 12 years of age. If they reached 15 years of age, they were considered spinsters and their fathers were looked upon with disfavor. That left the voyagers with 19 prisoners to sell as slaves and to keep for themselves. John met with the colonial governor and one of the chapter presidents to set up an auction to sell the slaves.

            Word spread like wild fire throughout the colony. Some of the tobacco plantation owners wanted to buy all the slaves and not share the bounty.

            The slaves were marched onto the platform to be viewed by the plantation owners. Each slave was stripped of their clothing. A look of dismay and fear crossed their faces. They looked down at their feet instead of at the people in the audience. John started the bidding for the first slave, Bubu. Bubu looked angrily at the crowd, he looked at his captors with defiance. He decided to go down with a fight. He sought to seek some respect and decorum for himself as he stood naked in front of the rowdy crowd. Bubu was of slim built and had muscular arms. John thought Bubu’s broad shoulders would be a selling factor which demonstrated that he was durable and could work very hard for his new owner.

            Gerald, one of the wealthiest plantation owners bought Bubu and Luna with six double crowns. John rubbed his hands together and royal crown signs were in his eyes. He was almost drooling.

            Fourteen additional slaves were sold for at least 11 shillings each.  One of the slaves was a young man named Kalama. He was barely 12 years of age. He appeared to be frail and was shaking horribly. He looked terrified as he watched the other slaves hauled away by their new masters. Finally, an elderly man raised his hand and said he would pay 11 shillings for Kalama. He was drug off the stage and handed to the man. The man put a leash over Kalama’s head and pulled it tightly and proceeded to pull Kalama behind him roughly. Kalama’s face was streaked with tears. He could not even imagine what terrors awaited him.

            The new slave owners were not adept at managing the slaves they purchased. They locked them up at night and let them out during the day to work in the fields. Field hands usually watched over them while wielding a musket. A machete would be strapped to their hips with leather straps and a whip would be wrapped around their shoulders at the ready in case a slave disobeyed any command. Most of the captives were whipped on a regular basis. Some of the slaves were taken advantage of sexually, even the male slaves with immense cruelty. The slave that Edward, the jailor, kept served Edward as a surrogate wife.

            “Bird, get your ass over here right now,” ordered Gerald.

            Bubu, who was renamed Bird, begrudgingly walked over to his master.

            “Bird, I thought I told you to clean out the horse stalls,” said Gerald in a very angry voice.

            Bird did not understand what the man was saying and before he knew it he was tied to a post and wiped ten times with a long leather whip. Bird stopped crying a while ago. When someone has given up completely and was completely broken with no hope of survival, it became difficult to muster tears. He dutiful took the whippings. Bird was a powerful man who ran a village and hunted wild boars and lions. To find himself reduced to such a level of disgrace and dishonor was more than he could take. One night he strung a rope over a rafter in the barn and hung himself.

            Kalama found himself in one of the best situations. He had to care for the home of his master named Homer and help on the farm. Homer and his wife, Martha, were sweet older people who owned a small farm with cows, pigs and bees. They sold milk and honey at the town market. Whenever other towns people were observing their relationship with Kalama, they acted as if they were mistreating him. Kalama was taught the English language. With the proper diet he grew into a strong young man and ended up being taller than his master. He flourished and questioned why he ended up being so lucky. Kalama was permitted to keep his original name.

            Luna ended up losing the baby she was carrying when she arrived in Jamestown. She was being whipped and started to miscarriage. She was thrown in the river and ordered to get back to the tobacco field to pick the crop. Her master’s wife, Marianne, was very jealous of her and wanted her removed from their small plantation. Marianne knew her husband, Jeremy, was sleeping with Luna. Luna was renamed Clara. Clara escaped and ran off into the woods never to be seen again.

            The rest of the slaves had a variety of stories. Most were renamed and severely abused on a regular basis. The language barriers caused a lot of problems for the slaves. A strict hierarchy was established among the slaves and their owners. The house slaves and the artisans such as the seamstresses were more privileged than the lowly field workers. It was believed that if the slaves were divided, it would help to stave off rebellions. Slave families were often separated when parts of families were sold to other owners. Rebellious slaves were severely mistreated. Marriages between slaves had no legal standing. The slaves were encouraged to have large families to provide their masters with future slave labor. More slaves were abducted from Africa and brought to Jamestown.

                                                                                     

            The onslaught of slavery secured its shackles around many of the lives of the people who were forced to leave their homes in Africa. Slavery in America started when the first African slaves were brought to North America to the colony of Jamestown, Virginia in 1619. Slavery began in America as a way of aiding in the production of crops such as cotton and tobacco and to work in the mines. Slaves proved to be a precious commodity. White people felt it was below them to be toiling in the fields picking crops. Since black people were considered less than human due to the color of their skin, they needed to be doing the arduous labor. American slaves aided in the building of this country and fulfilled the many demands of the growing economy.   

            The invention of the cotton gin in 1793 also set in stone the importance of slavery. The westward expansion in America along with the abolition movement in the north, led to the bloodiest of civil wars in 1861. The union enabled four million slaves to be released from their fettered existence. 120 million Africans were killed by the Islamic slave trade in Africa during the 1700s and 1800s. Approximately 11 million slaves were shipped to the U.S. and Europe while another 14 million were sent to the Islamic nations (this was not usually historically told in reports about slavery). Missionary David Livingstone who witnessed some of the savage slave raids conducted by the Muslims estimated that for each slave who was sold, five Africans were killed in the raid or died during the forced march to a port (Quayle, 2011).

            A slave owner kept his slaves at a lower status without any legal rights. Slaves were imprisoned and not permitted access to education because they would not develop independence and be able to think on their own. They were only educated in the tasks they needed to carry out for their owners. They were often cut off from the outside world. A slave was not allowed to ask questions and blind obedience was expected. Most masters wanted their slaves to lavish them with praise and devotion.

            A vicious cycle of racial hierarchy occurred for the people of color throughout history. From the sixteenth to eighteenth century, the Europeans imported millions of slaves from Africa. Slaves were taken from Africa instead of Asia for a variety of reasons. Africa was closer which made it cheaper. An already well-established slave trade was in existence in Africa. American plantations such as Virginia, Haiti and Brazil were plagued with malaria and yellow fever which originated in Africa. The African slaves had acquired an immunity to the diseases. It was believed that blacks lived in filth and spread diseases. They were considered a source of pollution which was evident later when they were forced to use separate bathroom facilities and the establishment of the KKK. A decision to abduct and import slaves to North America altered the balance of power for the African people who were forced to live in this country for centuries. 

            From ancient times to more recent times slavery has been in place to aid the wealthy people to hold positions of power and slaves have enhanced the economy considerably throughout the history of this world. Slaves were first introduced in America in 1619 and were used on tobacco and cotton plantations for centuries. Slavery existed all over the world throughout the history of this world. The Knights Templars, who served the Church, Muslims, Greeks, Romans and Europeans owned and sold slaves. Slavery was a form of expressed oppression and domination over a group of individuals who were usually taken by force

The First Crusades

Knights, soldiers and common folk embarked on one of the bloodiest excursions in the history of this world. After the crusading message spread throughout Western Europe, a much unpredicted reaction occurred amongst the inhabitants. Many were looking for something to upset the humdrum of their everyday lives. Others were tired of the unilateral rule and were seeking an escape from unyielding oppression. And yet others were looking for a little adventure and seeking an escape from the harsh weather of Europe. The crusaders were pursuing a common goal to obtain total control of Jerusalem which cost many their lives, the Christians, Jewish people and Muslims.

Before the Christians began their triumphant crusades, al-Hakim, referred also as Mad Hakim, decided to develop his own army and work separately from the other Islamic sects. His plans were filled with mayhem and bloodshed. He began his vicious attacks on Christians and Jewish people. Even though the Islamic people had control of the “Promise Land,” pilgrims from other religious sects, Christianity and Judaism were welcomed and treated respectfully before al-Hakim took control of Jerusalem. As a result of Hakim’s tyranny and other acts of Islamic aggression, the Islamic people were considered a formidable, pagan force, which needed to be put in their place or obliterated completely.

            Al-Hakim destroyed the church of the Resurrection, the Holy Sepulcher. Christians were being harassed and punished, under restraints and penalties for practicing their Christian religion. He sought to prove a point that the Islamic religion was by far the religion that required the most honor and respect. The Christians were all ordered to wear heavy wooden crosses so they could be readily identified. The Christians and Jewish people were not permitted to join the Islamic people in any of their ceremonies or public services such as the public baths. They were singled out and ridiculed. They were attacked when they traveled to Jerusalem by the Muslims.  

            The Byzantine emperor, Alexius, felt it was prudent to visit the Holy Land to meet with al-Hakim. A cup bearer was sent to retrieve Alexius who was found seated at the entrance to Jerusalem. Al-Hakim wanted Alexius to believe he had no evil intentions. Alexius read al-Hakim’s intentions loud and clear. The meeting went well between the two rulers. Al-Hakim agreed to lighten up concerning his treatment of Christians in exchange for the emperor’s invitation for him to visit freely the fine city of Constantinople. The two rulers drank into the wee hours of the morning as they laughed heartily about the wealth and power they have both amassed over their years of rule. Alexius left Jerusalem feeling he met his match. He was impressed with the ruler.

             

            Pope Urban II sought and desired to obtain an army of well-trained seasoned soldiers and knights to serve in the crusade. To a large degree what he got was everyman’s army, not only the talented knights and foot soldiers that served under warlords, but also an army equipped with poor and wretched but faithful people who wanted to fight for the cause. The ragged mix of common people, who decided to join forces with the soldiers and knights, were straggling behind. Some were walking and others were riding horses. Some of the wives and children tagged along behind the men. A few of the families had wagons that were pulled by horses. Some of the children were crying because they were hungry, tired and scared.

            There were also rogues and crazed men who were released from the depths of imprisonment to provide service. Some of the men were known robbers and murderers. Those seeking pilgrimage in the crusading efforts were promised salvation. The sewing of the cross on many of the warriors’ clothing served as a testament of their loyalty. They were promised to inherit an everlasting life. Only a few of the crusade leaders met Urban’s high expectations (Foss, 2011).

            The Christian armies were trained in various forms of warfare. The knights were a specialized smaller group who usually fought on horseback. They were dressed in light chain mail from head to toe. The knights fought with a lance, sword, axe, or mace, and they were protected by a large shield. The shields bore the brunt of their opponents’ attacks. Each knight was supported by a company of squires, pages, and grooms. They were also provided assistance by the Frank soldiers. Common folk usually took up the rear.

            The Church referred to the crusaders as military pilgrims. These courageous warriors were required to take vows and they were also rewarded with dispensation of protection for their property at home. Any legal proceedings against them were suspended or dropped entirely. Another incentive was the erasing of sin from their very beings no matter the severity of the infractions. Knights were especially attracted by the Get-Out-Of-Hell-Free cards allowing them to commit any sins throughout the rest of their lives without incurring liability in this or the next world. They were on an honorable mission.

            The Seljuk Turks told another story when it came to warfare abilities. The Turks fought as mounted archers. The older nations of the Mideast such as the Fatimids of Egypt, fought in the same manner as the Europeans. Mounted archers did not have a clear advantage when it came to face-to-face combat. The knights also did not have a clear advantage over the Turks. The knights were so weighted down by their equipment and protective gear that they ended up being slower than the Turks. The longer range of the European cross bows were an advantage for the Christian warriors but they were slower than the shorter bows of the Turks. On the open battlefield the Turks had the advantage. In close quarters, the Christian warriors had the advantage. Either group did not have complete advantage over their opponents.

             In the spring of 1096, after some time of living in a period of draught, the sky opened up rain poured down over the territory of France. The autumn harvest was bountiful due to finally receiving the rain needed for the crops that summer. This bounty served as a sign. Shortly after the Council of Clermont and Pope Urban made a plea for Christian armies to take over the “Promise Land,” there was a shower of meteorites that came down from the night sky. During the month of February of 1096, while the French king and his royal followers met to discuss the upcoming crusade, the moon in eclipse turned blood red.

            In March, an aurora borealis lit the evening sky with a spectacular light show. Many people visited the church in droves out of fear of such a sight. In August of the same year, the moon eclipsed again and later that year the winter moon was blocked to some degree by the blaze of a comet. All these were seen as signs of something bigger coming their way. Many Christians burned the cross on their flesh. They felt the heavens were speaking to them and beckoning them to do their part to save the Holy Land from the clutches of the Muslims (Foss, 2011).

            Large brigades of crusaders assembled and went their separate ways as they traveled to Constantinople. The first battalion to arrive in December of 1096 was from Lorraine, northern France and Germany, led by Godfrey de Bouillon. The second to  arrive  was  a   group of  Normans

from southern Italy, led by Duke Bohemond of Otranto and Count Tancred. A third group arrived from southern France under count Raymond of Toulouse. Another battalion included Frenchmen, Normans and Englishmen. They were under the leadership of the Duke Hugh de Vermandois, Robert Curthose of Normandy and Stephen of Blois. The last group arrived in May of 1097. Additional groups joined forces at various times.

Alexius I, the emperor of the Byzantine empire, permitted the Christian soldiers as they crossed the Bosphorus to enter his empire. The emperor pressed the Christians to release lands to him that were formerly part of the Byzantine Empire. The crusaders were not happy about the emperor’s request and felt uneasy about Alexius’ motives to join the crusade efforts. The Byzantine emperor hurried them across the straits to Asia before they could cause any trouble in his region. The crusaders had a reputation of being rowdy, careless and blood thirsty (Castleton, 2008).

            Emich, another commander, was a feudal lord and he had under his command knights of his own kind and he was joined in Germany by several companies of French, Burgundian, Flemish and English soldiers. His company was properly armed. Emich was extremely evil and desired immensely to spill the blood of as many as possible, being a ruthless killing machine and fulfilling the goal of Lucifer wanting to rid the planet of as many humans as possible. He was a Nephilim descendent who disguised himself as a handsome, tall and strong man. Women fell at his feet. He was known for his tyrannical way of life. He took whatever he wanted without consideration of others.

Emich claimed he was going to turn the other cheek and become more righteous. He referred to this change as his awakening and likened himself to Saul in the Bible. He managed to bring under his command almost twelve thousand Christian followers. He preached to his followers that killing a Jew will bring pardon for all their sins. Emich convinced many of this belief. When they reached the Holy Land, he would convince them that killing Muslims would ensure their entrance into heaven. Emich knew Pope Urban already set the stage for erasing all their sins by parti-cipating in the crusade.

            A trail did not actually exist across the better part of France. The terrain was rocky and consisted of a lot of hills and valleys. It was not easy going.

            The large formidable group of warriors led by Emich stopped at one of the Jewish communities in the Rhineland area. It was time to let loose and kill as many Jewish people as possible. A thousand Jewish people were killed or driven to take their own lives. In Worms, a massacre of Jewish people occurred again without remorse. It was a virtual blood bath, 800 Jewish people lost their lives at that location. The trail of blood continued in Speir, Cologne, and Prague as the crusaders continued their way to the Holy Land. The hatred of Jewish people ran rampant amongst the Christian people (Asbridge, 2010).

            Even with the direction of some capable and manipulating men, there was a lack of coordination, discipline, planning, collaborated commands and a mutual purpose. What occurred was a muddled and often riotous campaigns which amounted to a mixed matched group of Christian trouble makers for the most part. The mob of armed miss-matched soldiers and civilians crossed Europe. Along the way they pilfered supplies from the communities they invaded on the path to their final destination. They were sure that God held them in favor for carrying out their holy duties. Others had a different opinion on what they were doing and how they were carrying out what they thought was their divine purpose. Fights broke out between the travelers.

            They pushed further and further towards their goal, the “Promise Land.” Soon the crusaders surrounded Nicaea, a Greek city that fell prey to the Turks recently. Things looked bleak. The Turkish sultan did not want to lose his reign of such a valuable conquest. He sent his forces out to break up the siege. They approached with caution after learning about the stories of the multiple massacres. Both armies engaged in full warfare. It was not much of a fight because the inexperienced and incompetent group of Franks could not stand up to the fierceness of the Turks. Thousands were left for dead on the field and tens of thousands of the Franks were delivered to the slave markets.

            The second wave of crusaders was in route and soon arrived at Nicaea. These crusaders were more prepared. They sharpened their swords and made plans for the takeover. They were more level headed and competent than the first group of crusaders. The Turks shrugged when they saw the second group. Because they did not see the Christians as much of a threat, the Turks were completely taken off guard. They were surprised the second group arrived so quickly after the first group was annihilated. The Turks were tired and running out of arrows. Once the third group of crusaders arrived behind them to provide back up, the Turks were slaughtered and the ones who survived ran off confused and bewildered. The sultan ran for the hills leaving behind his servants, treasury and baggage train (Asbridge, 2010). 

            As a result of eliminating the enemy in Nicea, the Franks were able to march across Asia Minor. They reclaimed the lost territory of the Byzantines and traveled towards Syria. The group of knights, Frank soldiers and civilians were ecstatic about their new conquest. They felt God was really on their side and felt a new sense of enthusiasm. Things were really looking up for the group of miss-matched troops.

            The weather was cooperating and the terrain was becoming a little less difficult to travel. The temperatures were rising as they traveled south. The crusaders traveled along the Mediterranean Sea. The waves were lapping against the shore. They decided to put up camp near the sea. They fell asleep while listening to the sound of the sea. The Common Cuckoo’s, Black-Throated Divers, and Flamingoes were calling out to one another as they swam and flew across the weary travelers.

            A calm breeze cooled off the travelers as they were swept into a heavy slumber. Heavy breathing and light snores could be heard from the travelers. The sky was dark and was lit by many stars. Even the two men who were supposed to be watching over the settlement to protect them from possible intruders were enjoying a deep slumber. The entire group was able to sleep through the night and catch up on some needed slumber without being disturbed.           

            The next morning many of the Frank soldiers and knights were stirring. They started planning their next move as they traveled closer to their final destination, Jerusalem. Their next stop was going to be Antioch. Their plans involved the take over this location from the Islamic troops. They were having doubts about their capability of overpowering the Muslims.  They proved to be a cunning adversary.

            “I believe our army is not as strong as it needs to be,” said Sir Harold, one of the knights.

            “I think you are right,” replied Paul, one of the Frank army’s commanders.

            “We need to keep going,” said Sir Taylor, another knight. Sir Taylor and Sir Harold were talking earlier about how they survived the battles and are happy to still be fighting together. They were looking forward to their next adventure with bated anticipation.

            “The fortress at Antioch is probably going to be heavily guarded. Word has probably gotten out about the other defeats and they are waiting for us fully armed and manned. Our group took some heavy hits and we are not as fully equipped for battle as I would like,” said Sir Harold.

            “I believe with tenacity and planning we can take over Antioch, also,” replied Sir Taylor, another knight.

            Sir Harold sighed and gave into the others’ request and addressed the crowd to relay what their plans were as they proceeded closer to their final destination.

            “Listen everyone. We are soon going to enter enemy territory again. I say it’s their territory rather loosely, be-cause the territory we are about to enter belongs to the Christians. Our plan is to travel to Antioch. We plan on camping outside the gates of this fortress and study and learn about what type of force we are up against. It is in our best interest to not rush in without knowing what is behind the fortress walls. Our plan is to send in spies. The couple of Arab followers we managed to get to join our side are going to infiltrate the settlement and report back to us about how heavily armed our enemies are and where the weak areas are. There are always areas of a compound that are not as heavily guarded as others. We can attack where we feel we have more of a fighting chance. Does everybody agree with me that we need to play this out very discreetly and be ready for anything?”

            All the people listening to Sir Howard nodded their heads.

            “We need to do some hunting and gathering to prepare for our provisions before taking off on this next journey. Who is going to join me?” asked Sir Harold.

            Most of the men in attendance nodded in agreement.

            Wild game was not as readily available as they had hoped so they fished the waters of the Mediterranean. They speared Garfish, Red Gurnard and Blue Whiting. They didn’t know what the fish were called. The fish were different from the ones they were familiar with, but they were still delicious when cooked. They ate heartily to prepare for the journey. The leftover fish was stored in woven baskets covered with blankets. The women also picked pomegranates, cactus pears and persimmons and stored these in baskets.

            The plan was to continue to fish and pick fruit along the way to furnish themselves with the food they needed. They were going to travel alongside the Mediterranean Sea. They heard there were mountains and other treacherous terrain further north. 

            They discovered when they arrived at Antioch that there were not enough crusaders to completely surround the city of Antioch. As planned earlier, they camped outside the walls of the fortified city while they tried to figure out what their next course of action was going to be. One of the scouts reported the Muslims were sending an Islamic relief army to stop the crusaders’ siege. The commanders and knights knew they had to operate quickly. They were in luck. The scouts that were stationed inside the walls of the city paid off. That evening the Christian army sent a strike force to scale over the walls and get into the city fortress by a food storage building. That area was not being guarded. They were assisted by a Christian Armenian inhabitant of the city of Antioch. The Islamic guards were killed by the front gates and the gates to the city were opened to the waiting Christian army.

            The Turkish relief force arrived and discovered the crusaders were inside the city. They surrounded the city to conduct their own siege. The crusaders were about to give up hope when they discovered what they thought was the actual spearhead that was used to stab Jesus’ side at Calvary. It was hidden under the floor of one of the old churches. They looked at their discovery as a sign they needed to take over the city of Antioch for the Christians. They decided to fight the Turks with all their might.

            The crusaders lost a lot of their horses on the long march from the French territory to Antioch so they had to do most of their fighting on foot. The loss of their horses worked towards the Christian crusaders’ advantage. The European knights were trained to fight on horses and on foot. They were well prepared to take on the Turks while on foot which was unlike what the Muslims were trained to do. The Turks have never met such heavily armored foot soldiers. Without big warhorses to hit with arrows, the Turkish arrows did not make an impact on the heavily covered knights with their strong, durable armor. The crusaders had the Turks cornered and with the limited number of Islamic warriors, they were butchered in no time.

            The crusaders were under command of some very good leaders. Prince Bohemond of Taranto was one of them. He served as a practical commander for the weary team of warriors. Often with so many varied groups, the soldiers may or may not follow the commands of the leaders. The insubordination would cause some confusion, delays and loss of men. Prince Bohemond was able to get the attention of most of the crusaders and more often than not they would follow his commands. He was intelligent, authoritative and fair when it came to most circumstances. Because of his leadership Prince Bohemond was requested to stay at Antioch to rule the city.

            Count Raymond of Toulouse and Godfrey of Bouillon continued on with the most of the remaining crusaders. Some stayed behind to assist Prince Bohemond with the running of Antioch. The crusaders were led toward Jerusalem by Raymond and Godfrey.

            During the month of December in 1098 the crusaders took over the town of Ma’arra which finally occurred after a month long siege. They massacred approximately 20,000 Islamic captives. It was a virtual blood bath. After two years of marching and fighting, the crusaders were worn out and hungry. Most of the horses were lost. The countryside was bleak concerning food. Some of the hungriest did the unthinkable. They cooked some of the dead Muslims and feasted on their flesh. Cannibalism was a practice that occurred either during desperate times or sometimes it served as a symbolism of victory.

            Finally, they reached Jerusalem and it was taken over in July of 1099.  Approximately 70,000 people were killed in the streets, mostly the Islamic people. A lot of Christian people and Jewish people were murdered, also. A large number of Jewish people were barricaded in a synagogue. The building was set on fire and the Jewish people were burned inside. Their screams could be heard for miles. The crusaders walked through large pools of blood as they cruised the streets looking for more victims to slaughter.

            The war was finally won for the Christians, all in the name of God. Jerusalem finally fell under the leadership of the Christians. The atrocity of the crusades has left a dark stain on the Christians. The bloodthirsty Christian soldiers closed the gates to Jerusalem and murdered every person who was not a crusader in the city; Christians, Muslims and Jewish people. Every man, woman and child was killed mercilessly under the rationale that the blood of the infidels would cleanse the Holy City (Asbridge, 2010).