The Rivals: Tecumseh and Harrison

 

Tecumseh and William Henry Harrison, ambitious and intelligent men, experienced conflicting aspirations that led to severe repercussions. Both had a strong interest in land, who should reside on it and they served as mighty warriors for their people.  Tecumseh strived to unite Native Americans from all over the country to stop the invasion of white settlers and was noted as a great orator. Harrison sought to satisfy the whims of a steadily growing white population and convert territories to statehood with self-sufficient governance.  That meant the increase of population of Euro-Americans in scarcely populated territories. Both men bucked horns when they discussed their differences in which Harrison ended up the victor and the Native American people lost large portions of land, their livelihood and their endearing self-preservation.

            Tecumseh was born in 1768. Early in his life, he discovered that he despised the Americans because of the atrocities they inflicted on the Shawnee people and their land. He also did not like some of the things he witnessed Indians doing to the white men. Trained to be a warrior by his older brother Cheeseekau, he proceeded with any type of altercation with as little violence as possible. Tecumseh did not believe in torture. He believed a quick kill was best and the most humane.

            During the late 1780s, Tecumseh went on many raids against white settlers. He joined his brother Cheeseekau and a small band of Shawnee warriors in Tennessee where they met a group of Cherokee Chickamauga to continue with raiding activities. Cheeseekau died in one of the skirmishes so Tecumseh became the leader of the Shawnee band. He returned to Ohio to assist Chief Bluejacket battle the U.S. Army. Bluejacket and Tecumseh led a scouting party to help defeat General St. Clair’s army at the bloody Battle of Wabash River. Tecumseh fought at the Battle of Fallen Timbers on the Mauma River and lost to General Anthony Wayne and his army. Both sides signed the Treaty of Greenville except Tecumseh. He would not sign any treaty and willingly give up land that he thought belonged to the Indian people (History.com Editors, 2019).

 

            During the early 1800s, Tecumseh settled in Ohio and served as a respected leader, war chief and speaker. In 1805, his younger brother Lalawethika declared after an alcohol induced vision, that it was his intention to reclaim their lands and culture. He changed his name to Tenskwatawa and shortly afterwards he was referred to as the “Prophet.” After he predicted the solar eclipse in 1806, a massive number of Indian people came from various locations to become followers of the prophet. In 1808, Tecumseh and the Prophet moved their ever-growing alliance to Prophetstown which was near the Wabash and Tippecanoe rivers in present-day Indiana (History.com Editors, 2019).

 

            Harrison was born in Virginia on February 9, 1773.  His father, Benjamin Harrison (1726 – 91) signed the Declaration of Independence and served as the governor of Virginia. In 1791, he dropped his studies in medicine to pursue a career of becoming a soldier. Known as an “Indian fighter,” he either negotiated through treaties or fought battles to gain access to land once inhabited by Native Americans. Harrison was cited for bravery in the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794 (Matuz, 2012). The Americans won this battle which opened up much of Ohio to white settlement. Harrison, promoted to captain as a result of this win, became the commander of Ohio’s Fort Washington which is near present-day Cincinnati. As a result of treaties negotiated by Harrison with Indian people, he gained access to millions of acres of land (History.com Editors, 2009).

He was given instruction to have the Indian people sign as many treaties as possible to give up their land, Thomas Jefferson and Congress were some of the governmental leaders who supported the establishment of treaties. Harrison was successful at acquiring land from the Native Americans and not always by act of treaties, he also fought wars against the indigenous people. The Treaty of Fort Wayne afforded the federal government additional land. Several of the tribes gave up 3 million acres of land in exchange for annual payments ranging from $200. to $5,000. Harrison did not experience success with Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa who was referred to as the prophet because he predicted an eclipse.

       Tecumseh feared that many Shawnee and other Ohio Valley Indians had become dependent on trading with the Americans for guns, cloth, and metal goods and he was adamantly against such dependence. Tecumseh wanted all Indian people to return to their traditional ways. White settlers readily encroached on their government-recognized tribal land holdings (History.com Editors, 2019). The American government did not want to ruffle the feathers of the settlers. Also, it was the wish of Harrison to populate the Northwest territory and convert territorial land into states. Harrison viewed Tecumseh as a threat to that happening. “He was heartily tired of living in a Territory, one of the fairest of the globe condemned to be a state of nature, the haunt of a few wretched savages” (Sugden, 1997, pg. 215).

            In 1809, Tecumseh focused heavily on building a confederacy to fight against white settler encroachment which consisted of Native Americans who resided in various locations. He managed to persuade Indians from the Old Northwest and the deep South to unite and resist. They accumulated enough strength to stop the whites from taking more land. Hope rose abundant while Indians from Minnesota to Florida joined forces to prevent whites from taking their precious land. By 1810, he established the Ohio Valley Confederacy and the following nations were part of the confederacy: Shawnee, Potawatomi, Kickapoo, Winnebago, Menominee, Ottawa, and Wyandot (History.com Editors, 2019).

            Tecumseh traveled great distances to promote his pan-Indian alliance. He persuaded many Native American people to join him through powerful speeches which involve their need to overcome the invaders’ takeover of their precious land. They needed to unite and resist the American way of life. Harrison felt Tecumseh served as a threat to the Americans realizing their dream of taking over country and its resources.

            A legendary meeting between Tecumseh and Harrison was held in Vincennes which began on August 15, 1810. Tecumseh wanted the meeting held at his headquarters and the capital of his Indian Confederacy, Prophetstown. Harrison refused so Tecumseh gave in to the governor’s demands. Tecumseh feared this was the man he was fighting for the northwest. Tecumseh led his associates into Vincennes and they camped near a clearing in a small grove of trees close to Grouseland where Harrison’s large two-story home with tall chimneys was located. Harrison and his followers, seated on a platform, motioned Tecumseh to take a seat. Tecumseh refused and said “was the most proper place for the Indians as they liked to repose upon the bosom of their mother” (Sugden, 1997, page 198). He sat with his entourage on the grass in front of the platform.

            The two men faced each other, Tecumseh was more passionate about why he was at the meeting while Harrison sat mildly alert. Tecumseh spent several days trying to convince Harrison to no avail about his point of view. Harrison listened to what Tecumseh had to say and would not give into Tecumseh’s requests. A short break occurred and when the conference resumed on August 20^th both sides were at a stalemate and immense tension existed. In attendance at the conference were the territorial supreme court, the secretary of the territory, several army officers and unarmed citizens. Thirteen soldiers from Fort Knox stood guard. Tecumseh and several other Indians were in attendance along with the chief of the Weas who approved the treaty of Fort Wayne. The Potawatomi chief Winamek, a hated adversary, who lived under the threat of being killed for his indiscretions, also supported the aforementioned treaty. He remained silent while he sat next to Harrison on the grass armed holding pistols.

            Tecumseh continued to patiently try to make his point of stopping the invasion onto the Native American’s territory. He spoke about how the Americans identified individual tribes as owners of tracts of land for the purpose of future purchases. He was against the chiefs who had agreed to the land deals. Unsure if the treaties were approved by the American president, he spoke of them as being invalid and unfairly negotiated due to the ignorance of the Indian people who signed them. A meeting at Brownstown would be held in the near future to discuss the chiefs who signed the treaties and these individuals were to be punished, the deaths of these individuals rest with the United States and the Americans need to stop future treaties from being established. Harrison spent many years speaking with tribal leaders but he never met one like Tecumseh before. Tecumseh spoke confidently for all tribes on the continent. Tecumseh did not support the use of war to solve the land disagreements but felt future wars were unavoidable due to American policies. Tecumseh pleaded for justice and avowed that his people were being oppressed. He stood firm and said they did not want annuities, they wanted their land.

            “Brothers they want to save that piece of land. We do not wish you to take it. It is small enough for our purposes. If you do take it you must blame yourself as the cause of trouble between us and the tribes who sold it to you. I want to present boundary line to continue. Should you cross it, I assure you it will be productive of bad consequences” (Sugden, 1997, page 202).

            The Wyandot, Kickapoo, Potawatomi, and Winnebago speakers relayed the same message and stated that Tecumseh was their leader. Harrison and Tecumseh would not yield to the each other. Harrison said the lands were appropriately purchased. Both men saw no end to the conflict. The Governor told Tecumseh that he would send his concerns to the President.

            …”as the Great Chief is to determine the matter; I hope the Great Spirit will put some sense into his head to induce him to direct you to give up this land. It is true, he is so far off. He will not be injured by the war. He may still sit in his town, and drink his wine, whilst you and I will have to fight it out” (Sugden, 1997, page 202).

            The meeting ended without a satisfactory conclusion for either party. However, Tecumseh made the mistake of letting Harrison know that he planned to travel south to continue his recruitment of Indian people to join the confederacy. The unfortunate announcement served as the detriment to the confederacy and the future of the Native Americans.

           

            Tecumseh’s organized resistance led Harrison to travel to Prophetstown. He arrived during the evening of November 6, 1811. Soon after he arrived, he was met with a white flag requesting a cease fire until Tecumseh and Harrison could conduct a parley before any action was taken since Tecumseh was away recruiting warriors from the “Five Civilized Tribes.”  These tribes were experiencing an invasion of white settlers. The request represented a delay. Harrison was tired so he agreed to Tenskwatawa’s terms.

His force settled on a hill approximately a mile from Prophetstown on the banks of Burnett Creek. He did not trust Tenskwatawa’s cease fire request. The troops were ordered to form a rectangular defensive position for the evening. The front line was armed with militia and 300 regulars in reserve in case reinforcement was necessary. The southern section fell under the command of Captain Spier Spencer of the Indiana Yellow Jackets named for the yellow overcoats they wore into battle.

Harrison’s fears were realized when Tenskwatawa (the Prophet) wanted to break the cease fire. Tecumseh warned his brother to not incite war until the Confederacy was strengthened. The Prophet stood on a rock ledge above Prophetstown which was called Prophet’s Rock and enraged his followers into battle by chanting and singing war songs. He promised his rantings would protect the warriors from bullets.

At 4:00 in the morning Harrison’s men were completely surrounded by the Prophet’s warriors. The warriors attacked the northern end of the American rectangle and fired the first shots of the battle. The rest of the sleeping soldiers, awakened by the ruckus, joined the rest of the soldiers. A fierce attack occurred on the southern section of the American rectangle which caused Captain Spencer’s yellow jackets to retreat. Two commanding lieutenants lost their lives to the swarming warriors.

Harrison transferred Captain David Robb and Indian Mounted Rifles from the northern section to provide aid to the southern section of the rectangle. The warriors were forced to withdraw since Harrison augmented their defenses. A second wave of warrior attacks on the northern and southern flanks occurred. The Americans held their own against the fierceness of the attacks. The battle was being fought with equal force from both sides.

The fighting continued for approximately two hours until Harrison’s superior numbers and firepower forced the warriors to retreat. The braves returned to Prophetstown fed up with the Prophet’s failed promises to protect them. They abandoned Prophetstown, leaving it vulnerable to Harrison’s raid.

On November 8, 1811, Harrison rode into Prophetstown and torched the entire town. Tecumseh returned three months after the battle between Harrison and the Prophet’s warriors to find the town in complete ruins and no one around. Disheartened because the ruined headquarters of the Confederacy and the missing warriors meant the end of a dream which led to an end of much of the Indian resistance. All of Tecumseh’s hard work went down the drain. They more or less became sitting ducks in the face of a takeover of much of their land (Sugden, 1997).

            Tecumseh wanted to go against the Americans and their takeover of Indian land. He joined the British with his remaining followers during the War of 1812 in Michigan. He played a major role in defeating the American forces at the Siege of Detroit. After the defeat of Detroit, he joined British Major-General Henry Proctor’s regiment during the invasion of Ohio and again fought against Harrison and his troops. Harrison invaded Canada and the British were forced to flee. Harrison did not give up his grudge against Tecumseh. He pursued Tecumseh and his warriors to the Thames River where Tecumseh was killed on October 5, 1813 (History.com Editors, 2019).

            Some historians in Canada refer to Tecumseh as the Father of Canada. He fought hard to conquer the Americans in Canada. He was relentless. His loyalty was never to Canada or to the British in Canada. His dream involved his pan-Indian movement that would secure land for his people, the land that was necessary for the Indian people to carry out their traditional way of life. In his untimely death, the Canadians and British were only slightly less his enemies than the Americans (Goltz, 1983).

           

           

The Prophet’s Curse (Tecumseh’s brother Tenskwatawa)

“When Harrison was nominated as one of eh stable of Whig candidates in 1836, the Shawnee Prophet, whom he had defeated in the Battle of Tippecanoe, emerged again to put a curse on him. ‘Harrison will not win this year to be the Great Chief,’ he predicted, ‘but he may win next time. If he does… he will not finish his term. He will die in office. […] And when he does, you will remember my brother Tecumseh’s death. You think that I have lost my powers. I who caused the sun to darken and red men to give up firewater. But I tell, Harrison will, and after him every Great Chief chosen every twenty years thereafter shall also die. When each one dies, let everyone remember the death of my people.’ An idle threat? Who knows? But the fact is, The twenty-year cycle of death played itself out with Harrison (1840), Lincoln (1860), Garfield (1880), McKinley (1900), Harding (1920), Franklin D. Roosevelt (1940), and Kennedy (1960). Only Ronald Reagan, elected in 1980, escaped the curse, though he was shot in an assassination attempt” (Matuz, 2012, page 161).

Greenville Treaty of 1795

WYANDOTS, DELAWARES, ETC.

[concluded August 3, 1795]

A treaty of peace between the United States of America, and the tribes of Indians called the Wyandots, Delawares, Shawnees, Ottawas, Chippewas, Pattawatimas, Miamis, Eel Rivers, Weas, Kickapoos, Piankeshaws, and Kaskaskias.

To put an end to a destructive war, to settle all controversies, and to restore harmony and friendly intercourse between the said United States and Indian tribes, Anthony Wayne, major general commanding the army of the United States, and sole commissioner for the good purposes above mentioned, and the said tribes of Indians, by their sachems, chiefs, and warriors, met together at Greenville, the headquarters of the said army, have agreed on the following articles, which, when ratified by the President, with the advice and consent of the Senate of the United States, shall be binding on them and the said Indian tribes.

Art. 1:

Henceforth all hostilities shall cease; peace is hereby established, and shall be perpetual; and a friendly intercourse shall take place between the said United States and Indian tribes.

Art. 2:

All prisoners shall, on both sides, be restored. The Indians, prisoners to the United States, shall be immediately set at liberty. The people of the United States, still remaining prisoners among the Indians, shall be delivered up in ninety days from the date hereof, to the general or commanding officer at Greenville, fort Wayne, or fort Defiance; and ten chiefs of the said tribes shall remain at Greenville as hostages, until the delivery of the prisoners shall be effected.

Art. 3:

The general boundary line between the lands of the United States and the lands of the said Indian tribes, shall begin at the mouth of Cayahoga river, and run thence up the same to the portage, between that and the Tuscarawas branch of the Muskingum, thence down that branch to the crossing place above fort Lawrence, thence westerly to a fork of that branch of the Great Miami river, running into the Ohio, at or near which fork stood Loromie's store, and where commences the portage between the Miami of the Ohio, and St. Mary's river, which is a branch of the Miami which runs into lake Erie; thence a westerly course to fort Recovery, which stands on a branch of the Wabash; thence southwesterly in a direct line to the Ohio, so as to intersect that river opposite the mouth of Kentucke or Cuttawa river. And in consideration of the peace now established; of the goods formerly received from the United States; of those now to be delivered; and of the yearly delivery of goods now stipulated to be made hereafter; and to indemnify the United States for the injuries and expenses they have sustained during the war, the said Indian tribes do hereby cede and relinquish forever, all their claims to the lands lying eastwardly and southwardly of the general boundary line now described: and these lands, or any part of them, shall never hereafter be made a cause or pretence, on the part of the said tribes, or any of them, of war or injury to the United States, or any of the people thereof.

And for the same considerations, and as an evidence of the returning friendship of the said Indian tribes, of their confidence in the United States, and desire to provide for their accommodations, and for that convenient intercourse which will be beneficial to both parties, the said Indian tribes do also cede to the United States the following pieces of land, to wit:

1)One piece of land six miles square, at or near Loromie's store, before mentioned.

2) One piece two miles square, at the head of the navigable water or landing, on the St. Mary's river, near Girty's town.

3) One piece six miles square, at the head of the navigable water of the Auglaize river.

4) One piece six miles square, at the confluence of the Auglaize and Miami rivers, where fort Defiance now stands.

5) One piece six miles square, at or near the confluence of the rivers St. Mary's and St. Joseph's, where Fort Wayne now stands, or near it.

6) One piece two miles square, on the Wabash river, at the end of the portage from the Miami of the lake, and about eight miles westward from Fort Wayne.

7) One piece six miles square, at the Ouatanon, or Old Wea towns, on the Wabash river.

8) One piece twelve miles square, at the British fort on the Miami of the lake, at the foot of the rapids.

9) One piece six miles square, at the mouth of the said river, where it empties into the lake.

10) One piece six miles square, upon Sandusky lake, where a fort formerly stood.

11) One piece two miles square, at the lower rapids of Sandusky river.

12) The post of Detroit, and all the land to the north, the west and the south of it, of which the Indian title has been extinguished by gifts or grants to the French or English governments: and so much more land to be annexed to the district of Detroit, as shall be comprehended between the river Rosine, on the south, lake St. Clair on the north, and a line, the general course whereof shall be six miles distant from the west end of lake Erie and Detroit river.

13) The post of Michilimackinac, and all the land on the island on which that post stands, and the main land adjacent, of which the Indian title has been extinguished by gifts or grants to the Frewnch or English governments; and a piece of land on the main to the north of the island, to measure six miles, on lake Huron, or the strait between lakes Huron and Michigan, and to extend three miles back from the water of the lake or strait; and also, the Island De Bois Blane, being an extra and voluntary gift of the Chippewa nation.

14) One piece of land six miles square, at the mouth of Chikago river, emptying into the southwest end of lake Michigan, where a fort formerly stood.

15)One piece twelve miles square, at or near the mouth of the Illinois river, emptying into the Mississippi.

16) One piece six miles square, at the old Piorias fort and village near the south end of the Illinois lake, on said Illinois river. And whenever the United States shall think proper to survey and mark the boundaries of the lands hereby ceded to them, they shall give timely notice thereof to the said tribes of Indians, that they may appoint some of their wise chiefs to attend and see that the lines are run according to the terms of this treaty.

And the said Indian tribes will allow to the people of the United States a free passage by land and by water, as one and the other shall be found convenient, through their country, along the chain of posts hereinbefore mentioned; that is to say, from the commencement of the portage aforesaid, at or near Loromie's store, thence along said portage to the St. Mary's, and down the same to fort Wayne, and then down the Miami, to lake Erie; again, from the commencement of the portage at or near Loromie's store along the portage from thence to the river Auglaize, and down the same to its junction with the Miami at fort Defiance; again, from the commencement of the portage aforesaid, to Sandusky river, and down the same to Sandusky bay and lake Erie, and from Sandusky to the post which shall be taken at or near the foot of the Rapids of the Miami of the lake; and from thence to Detroit. Again, from the mouth of Chikago, to the commencement of the portage, between that river and the Illinois, and down the Illinois river to the Mississippi; also, from fort Wayne, along the portage aforesaid, which leads to the Wabash, and then down the Wabash to the Ohio. And the said Indian tribes will also allow to the people of the United States, the free use of the harbors and mouths of rivers along the lakes adjoining the Indian lands, for sheltering vessels and boats, and liberty to land their cargoes where necessary for their safety.

Art. 4:

In consideration of the peace now established, and of the cessions and relinquishments of lands made in the preceding article by the said tribes of Indians, and to manifest the liberality of the United States, as the great means of rendering this peace strong and perpetual, the United States relinquish their claims to all other Indian lands northward of the river Ohio, eastward of the Mississippi, and westward and southward of the Great Lakes and the waters, uniting them, according to the boundary line agreed on by the United States and the King of Great Britain, in the treaty of peace made between them in the year 1783. But from this relinquishment by the United States, the following tracts of land are explicitly excepted:

1st. The tract on one hundred and fifty thousand acres near the rapids of the river Ohio, which has been assigned to General Clark, for the use of himself and his warriors.

2nd. The post of St. Vincennes, on the River Wabash, and the lands adjacent, of which the Indian title has been extinguished.

3rd. The lands at all other places in possession of the French people and other white settlers among them, of which the Indian title has been extinguished as mentioned in the 3d article; and

4th. The post of fort Massac towards the mouth of the Ohio. To which several parcels of land so excepted, the said tribes relinquish all the title and claim which they or any of them may have.

And for the same considerations and with the same views as above mentioned, the United States now deliver to the said Indian tribes a quantity of goods to the value of twenty thousand dollars, the receipt whereof they do hereby acknowledge; and henceforward every year, forever, the United States will deliver, at some convenient place northward of the river Ohio, like useful goods, suited to the circumstances of the Indians, of the value of nine thousand five hundred dollars; reckoning that value at the first cost of the goods in the city or place in the United States where they shall be procured. The tribes to which those goods are to be annually delivered, and the proportions in which they are to be delivered, are the following:

1st. To the Wyandots, the amount of one thousand dollars.

2nd. To the Delawares, the amount of one thousand dollars.

3rd. To the Shawnees, the amount of one thousand dollars.

4th. To the Miamis, the amount of one thousand dollars.

5th. To the Ottawas, the amount of one thousand dollars.

6th. To the Chippewas, the amount of one thousand dollars.

7th.To the Pattawatimas, the amount of one thousand dollars, and

8th. To the Kickapoo, Wea, Eel River, Piankeshaw, and Kaskaskia tribes, the amount of five hundred dollars each.

Provided, that if either of the said tribes shall hereafter, at an annual delivery of their share of the goods aforesaid, desire that a part of their annuity should be furnished in domestic animals, implements of husbandry, and other utensils convenient for them, and in compensation to useful artificers who may reside with or near them, and be employed for their benefit, the same shall, at the subsequent annual deliveries, be furnished accordingly.

Art. 5:

To prevent any misunderstanding about the Indian lands relinquished by the United States in the fourth article, it is now explicitly declared, that the meaning of that relinquishment is this: the Indian tribes who have a right to those lands, are quietly to enjoy them, hunting, planting, and dwelling thereon, so long as they please, without any molestation from the United States; but when those tribes, or any of them, shall be disposed to sell their lands, or any part of them, they are to be sold only to the United States; and until such sale, the United States will protect all the said Indian tribes in the quiet enjoyment of their lands against all citizens of the United States, and against all other white persons who intrude upon the same. And the said Indian tribes again acknowledge themselves to be under the protection of the said United States, and no other power whatever.

Art. 6:

If any citizen of the United States, or any other white person or persons, shall presume to settle upon the lands now relinquished by the United States, such citizen or other person shall be out of the protection of the United States; and the Indian tribe, on whose land the settlement shall be made, may drive off the settler, or punish him in such manner as they shall think fit; and because such settlements, made without the consent of the United States, will be injurious to them as well as to the Indians, the United States shall be at liberty to break them up, and remove and punish the settlers as they shall think proper, and so effect that protection of the Indian lands herein before stipulated.

Art. 7:

The said tribes of Indians, parties to this treaty, shall be at liberty to hunt within the territory and lands which they have now ceded to the United States, without hindrance or molestation, so long as they demean themselves peaceably, and offer no injury to the people of the United States.

Art. 8:

Trade shall be opened with the said Indian tribes; and they do hereby respectively engage to afford protection to such persons, with their property, as shall be duly licensed to reside among them for the purpose of trade; and to their agents and servants; but no person shall be permitted to reside among them for the purpose of trade; and to their agents and servants; but no person shall be permitted to reside at any of their towns or hunting camps, as a trader, who is not furnished with a license for that purpose, under the hand and seal of the superintendent of the department northwest of the Ohio, or such other person as the President of the United States shall authorize to grant such licenses; to the end, that the said Indians may not be imposed on in their trade.* And if any licensed trader shall abuse his privilege by unfair dealing, upon complaint and proof thereof, his license shall be taken from him, and he shall be further punished according to the laws of the United States. And if any person shall intrude himself as a trader, without such license, the said Indians shall take and bring him before the superintendent, or his deputy, to be dealt with according to law. And to prevent impositions by forged licenses, the said Indians shall, at lease once a year, give information to the superintendent, or his deputies, on the names of the traders residing among them.

Art. 9:

Lest the firm peace and friendship now established, should be interrupted by the misconduct of individuals, the United States, and the said Indian tribes agree, that for injuries done by individuals on either side, no private revenge or retaliation shall take place; but instead thereof, complaint shall be made by the party injured, to the other: by the said Indian tribes or any of them, to the President of the United States, or the superintendent by him appointed; and by the superintendent or other person appointed by the President, to the principal chiefs of the said Indian tribes, or of the tribe to which the offender belongs; and such prudent measures shall then be taken as shall be necessary to preserve the said peace and friendship unbroken, until the legislature (or great council) of the United States, shall make other equitable provision in the case, to the satisfaction of both parties. Should any Indian tribes meditate a war against the United States, or either of them, and the same shall come to the knowledge of the before mentioned tribes, or either of them, they do hereby engage to give immediate notice thereof to the general, or officer commanding the troops of the United States, at the nearest post.

And should any tribe, with hostile intentions against the United States, or either of them, attempt to pass through their country, they will endeavor to prevent the same, and in like manner give information of such attempt, to the general, or officer commanding, as soon as possible, that all causes of mistrust and suspicion may be avoided between them and the United States. In like manner, the United States shall give notice to the said Indian tribes of any harm that may be meditated against them, or either of them, that shall come to their knowledge; and do all in their power to hinder and prevent the same, that the friendship between them may be uninterrupted.

Art. 10:

All other treaties heretofore made between the United States, and the said Indian tribes, or any of them, since the treaty of 1783, between the United States and Great Britain, that come within the purview of this treaty, shall henceforth cease and become void.

In testimony whereof, the said Anthony Wayne, and the sachems and war chiefs of the before mentioned nations and tribes of Indians, have hereunto set their hands and affixed their seals. Done at Greenville, in the territory of the United States northwest of the river Ohio, on the third day of August, one thousand seven hundred and ninety five.

WYANDOTS.

Tarhe, or Crane, his x mark L.S. J. Williams, jun. his x mark, L.S. Teyyaghtaw, his x mark, L.S. Haroenyou, or half king's son, his x mark, L.S. Tehaawtorens, his x mark, L.S. Awmeyeeray, his x mark, L.S. Stayetah, his x mark L.S. Shateyyaronyah, or Leather Lips, his x mark, L.S. Daughshuttayah, his x mark L.S. Shaawrunthe, his x mark L.S.

DELAWARES.

Tetabokshke, or Grand Glaize King, his x mark, L.S. Lemantanquis, or Black King, his x mark, L.S. Wabatthoe, his x mark, L.S. Maghpiway, or Red Feather, his x mark, L.S. Kikthawenund, or Anderson, his x mark, L.S. Bukongehelas, his x mark, L.S. Peekeelund, his x mark, L.S. Wellebawkeelund, his x mark, L.S. Peekeetelemund, or Thomas Adams, his x mark, L.S. Kishkopekund, or Captain Buffalo, his x mark, L.S. Amenahehan, or Captain Crow, his x mark, L.S. Queshawksey, or George Washington, his x mark, L.S. Weywinquis, or Billy Siscomb, his x mark, L.S. Moses, his x mark, L.S.

SHAWNEES.

Misquacoonacaw, or Red Pole, his x mark, L.S. Cutthewekasaw, or Black Hoof, his x mark, L.S. Kaysewaesekah, his x mark, L.S. Weythapamattha, his x mark, L.S. Nianysmeka, his x mark, L.S. Waytheah, or Long Shanks, his x mark, L.S. Weyapiersenwaw, or Blue Jacket, his x mark, L.S. Nequetaughaw, his x mark, L.S. Hahgoosekaw, or Captain Reed, his x mark, L.S.

OTTAWAS.

Augooshaway, his x mark, L.S. Keenoshameek, his x mark, L.S. La Malice, his x mark, L.S. Machiwetah, his x mark, L.S. Thowonawa, his x mark, L.S. Secaw, his x mark, L.S.

CHIPPEWAS.

Mashipinashiwish, or Bad Bird, his x mark, L.S. Nahshogashe, (from Lake Superior), his x mark, L.S. Kathawasung, his x mark, L.S. Masass, his x mark, L.S. Nemekass, or Little Thunder, his x mark, L.S. Peshawkay, or Young Ox, his x mark, L.S. Nanguey, his x mark, L.S. Meenedohgeesogh, his x mark, L.S. Peewanshemenogh, his x mark, L.S. Weymegwas, his x mark, L.S. Gobmaatick, his x mark, L.S.

OTTAWA.

Chegonickska, an Ottawa from Sandusky, his x mark, L.S.

PATTAWATIMAS OF THE RIVER ST. JOSEPH.

Thupenebu, his x mark, L.S. Nawac, for himself and brother Etsimethe,
his x mark, L.S. Nenanseka, his x mark, L.S. Keesass, or Run, his x mark, L.S. Kabamasaw, for himself and brother Chisaugan,
his x mark, L.S. Sugganunk, his x mark, L.S. Wapmeme, or White Pigeon, his x mark, L.S. Wacheness, for himself and brother Pedagoshok,
his x mark, L.S. Wabshicawnaw, his x mark, L.S. La Chasse, his x mark, L.S. Meshegethenogh, for himself and brother,
Wawasek, his x mark, L.S. Hingoswash, his x mark, L.S. Anewasaw, his x mark, L.S. Nawbudgh, his x mark, L.S. Missenogomaw, his x mark, L.S. Waweegshe, his x mark, L.S. Thawme, or Le Blanc, his x mark, L.S. Geeque, for himself and brother Shewinse, his x mark, L.S.

PATTAWATIMAS OF HURON.

Okia, his x mark, L.S. Chamung, his x mark, L.S. Segagewan, his x mark, L.S. Nanawme, for himself and brother A. Gin, his x mark, L.S. Marchand, his x mark, L.S. Wenameac, his x mark, L.S.

MIAMIS.

Nagohquangogh, or Le Gris, his x mark, L.S. Meshekunnoghquoh, or Little Turtle, his x mark, L.S.

MIAMIS AND EEL RIVERS.

Peejeewa, or Richard Ville, his x mark, L.S. Cochkepoghtogh, his x mark, L.S.

EEL RIVER TRIBE.

Shamekunnesa, or Soldier, his x mark, L.S.

MIAMIS.

Wapamangwa, or the White Loon, his x mark, L.S.

WEAS, FOR THEMSELVES AND THE PIANKESHAWS.

Amacunsa, or Little Beaver, his x mark, L.S. Acoolatha, or Little Fox, his x mark, L.S. Francis, his x mark, L.S.

KICKAPOOS AND KASKASKIAS.

Keeawhah, his x mark, L.S. Nemighka, or Josey Renard, his x mark, L.S. Paikeekanogh, his x mark, L.S.

DELAWARES OF SANDUSKY.

Hawkinpumiska, his x mark, L.S. Peyamawksey, his x mark, L.S. Reyntueco, (of the Six Nations, living at Sandusky), his x mark, L.S.

H. De Butts, first A.D.C. and Sec'ry to Major Gen. Wayne, Wm. H. Harrison, Aid de Camp to Major Gen. Wayne, T. Lewis, Aid de Camp to Major Gen. Wayne, James O'Hara, Quartermaster Gen'l. John Mills, Major of Infantry, and Adj. Gen'l. Caleb Swan, P.M.T.U.S. Gen. Demter, Lieut. Artillery, Vigo, P. Frs. La Fontaine, Ast. Lasselle, Sworn interpreters. H. Lasselle, Wm. Wells, Js. Beau Bien, Jacques Lasselle, David Jones, Chaplain U.S.S. M. Morins, Lewis Beaufait, Bt. Sans Crainte, R. Lachambre, Christopher Miller, Jas. Pepen, Robert Wilson, Baties Coutien, Abraham Williams, his x mark P. Navarre. Isaac Zane, his x mark

Source: Indian Affairs : Laws and Treaties Vol II (Treaties) Compiled and Edited By Charles J. Kappler LL. M. Clerk to the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs Washington, DC : Government Printing Office, 1904

 

 

 

 

 

Gilgamesh

 The tale of Gilgamesh is the oldest story in the world with origins associated with Sumerian legends and poems found on the cuneiform tablets dating back to as early as 2750 BC, perhaps earlier. The story was preserved on 12 clay tablets. According to ancient Sumerian king lists, Gilgamesh served as the fifth king who ruled after the flood. Enlil, an Annunaki god, (an alien from planet Nibiru) flooded the entire Earth. This story is similar to the story in the Book of Genesis in the Bible. Enlil wanted to destroy all of mankind. They irritated him and Enlil thought the Annunaki could live without them. The god Enki, Enlil’s brother, forewarned Utnapishtim which enabled him to escape with his family with seeds from plant life, animals and his treasures on a boat he was ordered to build. The story of Gilgamesh involved his friend Enkidu and all their adventures. 

The people of Uruk, unhappy about Gilgamesh’s treatment of them especially the women, started rebelling. He slept with married women and used women like they were sexual objects. Arura, the goddess of creation, created a mighty wild man, Enkidu, who was as powerful as Gilgamesh.  He lived amongst the wild animals. He caused problems for the shepherds and trappers of the area. Gilgamesh was made aware of their concerns. He sent a prostitute, Shamhat, to lure and domesticate Enkidu. She spent six days and seven nights with the wild man. Converted from a wild man who lived with animals to a man who adapted the ways of men. Shamhat convinced him to move to the city. Meanwhile, Gilgamesh had strange dreams in which his mother confirmed it was an indication that he would be joined by a gargantuan friend.

            Enkidu worked with the shepherds and trappers to help them with their work. Gilgamesh attended a wedding party to sleep with the newly married bride. Enkidu stepped in and stopped Gilgamesh. He warned Gilgamesh that he must stop feeding his ego and stop his horrible treatment of women and he must stop defiling sacred marriage bonds. Gilgamesh and Enkidu fought against each other in a mighty battel. Gilgamesh defeated Enkidu and decide to spare his life. Enkidu wanted to provide Gilgamesh with many lessons involving the virtues of compassion and humbleness along with bravery and dignity. Enkidu discovered that he could learn important lessons from Gilgamesh. They developed a new-found friendship and saw each other as brothers, inseparable.

            After many years, Gilgamesh became bored with the peaceful life and wanted to shake things up. Having the desire to do something noteworthy, he suggested they travel to the sacred Cedar Forest to chop down some of the great trees and kill the demon Humbaba, the guardian of Cedar Forest. The council of elders, Gilgamesh’s mother and Enkidu did not support Gilgamesh’s plans. They told Gilgamesh that the Cedar Forest, a sacred realm of the gods, needed to be left alone. The sun-god Shamash was enlisted for his support regarding Gilgamesh’s plans. Gilgamesh pushed forward and was on his way to the Cedar Forest with Enkidu, while engaging in bad dreams. Enkidu explained his dreams away and said they were good omens. He encouraged Gilgamesh on even though he feared entering the Cedar Forest.

            The fearsome heroes confronted the demon-orge Humbaba and a great battle ensues. During the battle Gilgamesh offers his own sisters as wives and concubines to the monster to distract him. The monster’s seven layers of armor were peeled away slowly with the help of Shamash. He sent fierce winds to help remove the armor. They finally defeated Humbaba. Gilgamesh at first felt sympathy and spared the ogre’s life. He finally complied with Enkidu’s logical orders and put Humbaba to death. They cut down a huge cedar tree and the tree is used as a huge door for the gods.

           

            Later in Gilgamesh’s future, a vixen by the name of Ishtar, known as the and goddess of love and war and daughter of the sky-god Anu, made sexual advances to Gilgamesh. He was aware of her mistreatment of previous lovers so he rejected her. Offended, she requested her father to send down the “Bull of Heaven” to get back at Gilgamesh. She also threatened to raise the dead if he continued to refuse her. The bull brought great drought and plagues upon Uruk. Gilgamesh and Enkidu killed the beast and offered its heart to Shamash. The bull’s behind was thrown at Ishtar.

            The people of Uruk celebrated the victory, but Enkidu had a bad dream about the gods being unhappy with him for killing the “Bull of Heaven” and Humbaba and curses the door he made for the gods at the Cedar Forest. He cursed the woman he married and the day he became human. He changes his mind when Shamash tells him from heaven that he is not treating himself fairly. Shamash warned Enkidu that Gilgamesh will become a lesser man if he dies. Enkidu died and on his way to the underworld he described the darkness and how the dead wore feathers like birds and they ate clay. Gilgamesh was devastated about his death and refused to leave his side for six days and seven nights until maggots festered on his body and begin to fall off. He ordered everyone to mourn for Enkidu and ordered statues to be built in Enkidu’s honor (Mitchell, 2004).

            “Gilgamesh meant never to die. Having seen death at close quarters, he knew that it was not for him. He made a nonsense of all endeavor, made fame worthless, made achievements hollow. No, he would oversee Enkidu’s funeral, then leave Uruk -it held nothing for him now – and go in search of the secret” (McCaughrean, 2002, pg. 48).

            He had a conversation with his mother about pursuing the gift of immortality.

            “Gilgamesh, no one lives forever,” said Ninsun. She viewed the unkept wildness of her son after he came back from the forest and the look in his eye was one of sheer madness (McCaughrean, 2002).

            Gilgamesh made a dangerous journey to visit Utnapishtim and his wife. The only humans who survived the great flood Enlil inflicted on the humans to rid the planet of what he thought were useless, pesky, and noisy creatures. The journey involved crossing vast rivers and oceans and mountain passes and dealing with and slaying massive mountain lions, bears and other beasts. He finally reached the twin peaks of Mount Mashu which was considered the end of the Earth where the sun rises from another world. The gate was guarded by two scorpion monsters. They permit Gilgamesh to enter because he convinces them of his divinity and desperation. He traveled 12 leagues through a dark tunnel where the sun traveled every night. At the end of the tunnel a bright wonderland emerges which was full of trees with leaves made of jewels. Gilgamesh marveled at the splendor.

            He met a wine maker named Siduri. Siduri thought he was a murderer, an untrustworthy person, because he was dirty and disheveled. She finally believed him and sent him to meet Urshanabi, a ferryman. He needed to transport Gilgamesh across the Waters of Death. One quick touch of the water meant instant death. When he meets Urshanabi he was surrounded by stone giants. Gilgamesh hastily kills the stone giants. He felt they were probably hostile. He informed the ferryman of his good deed and asked for his help. Urshanabi explained that he has destroyed the sacred stones which eliminated the only way they could cross the Water of Death. Gilgamesh cuts 120 trees and makes them into punting poles by using a new pole each time and his garment was used as a sail.

            Gilgamesh finally reaches Utnapishtim and Utnapishtim told the story about his survival of the great rain storm and flood inflicted by the god Enlil.

“The boat I was instructed to build, housed seeds from animals and plants. We landed at the tip of the mountain of Nisir. We had to wait for the water to subside. We released the first dove, then a swallow and then a raven to search for dry land. We found out later that Enlil was furious when he learned that a few humans survived. Enki, his brother, convinced him to make peace. Enlil blessed Utnapishtim and his wife and the remaining humans were granted everlasting life. And that’s how we got to the island of Dilmun, the land of the gods.”

            Utnapishtim, reluctant to grant Gilgamesh his wish for eternal life, finally after much coaxing conceded to give him a chance of immortality. The first challenge Gilgamesh had to meet was to stay awake for six days and seven nights. Gilgamesh however fell asleep right away and did not meet the challenge. Utnapishtim mocks Gilgamesh and sends him packing for Uruk. The ferryman was also exiled along with Gilgamesh.

            Utnapishtim’s wife asked him to have mercy on Gilgamesh concerning his long journey. He conceded and told him of a plant that grew at the bottom of the ocean that will convert to his youth. Gilgamesh found the plant when he attached stones to his feet so he could walk on the bottom of the ocean. He found the plant and planned on rejuvenating the old men who live at Uruk. He placed the plant on the shore of a lake while he bathed and unfortunately a serpent had stolen the plant. Gilgamesh became saddened and frustrated because he lost two chances of immortality. He returned to Uruk. After a while, Gilgamesh died, the city mourned the loss and they knew they would never see anyone like him again (Mitchell, 2004).

           

Bear River Massacre

 

            The massacre of members of the Northwest Band of Shoshone Indians preceded many of the more infamous massacres such as the Sand Creek and Wounded Knee Massacres. It did not get the recognition it deserved as a devastating event for the Shoshone people.  The massacre occurred on January 29^th, 1863 along the Bear River in what is now southern Idaho.  The Civil War was grabbing the headlines and most likely this matter received a paragraph at most in the biggest newspapers, if mentioned at all.  The circumstances leading up to the massacre were those which will become all too commonplace in the history of the Native Americans in the United States during the latter half of the nineteenth century.  In detailing the history and development of this massacre “facts” from both sides will be presented.  In the end as many as 400 tribal members lost their lives.

            The Shoshone were spread out in the area known as the Great Basin, the region was surrounded by the Wasatch Mountains to the east, the Sierra Nevada to the west, and the Snake River Plain to the north. The south rim was less distinct and not worth mentioning. The Great Basin included most of Nevada, half of Utah, and sections of Idaho, Wyoming, Oregon, and California.  Cultural similarities existed between the different bands that spread over the territory but differences in life styles were also present. The Eastern Shoshone led by Chief Washakie relied extensively on the use of horses which enabled them to travel to the Wyoming territory and hunt buffalo more so than other Shoshone bands.  Bands living near certain rivers utilized fish more widely in their diet.  Those living in the area north of the Great Salt Lake had access to wide-ranging grassy plains; these grasses yielded large amounts of seeds which were harvested and utilized in the diet providing an important food staple during the winter months.  Other important food items included berries, roots and small game.  The Great Basin was also the location where the California Trail passed through with a branch of the Oregon Trail breaking away a short distance from present day Salt Lake City.

            Shoshone exposure to white emigrants increased in the 1840’s as traffic on the California and Oregon Trails amplified with the degree of contact related to distance a particular band lived from the trail.  Most of the traffic was just passing by.  Eventually trading posts were built and  there was limited trade with fur trappers/fur traders prior to expansion in California.  Initially, the interaction between whites and Indians was friendly.  Eventually emigrants headed west to California and started to settle in the area. In some circumstance’s migration expanded eastward from California as gold in California became scarcer and new gold mines opened in the Great Basin area.

            In 1847 a large group of Mormons settled in Utah.  This group was led by Brigham Young from Illinois.  They wanted to escape persecution by settling in the Mexican Territory.  Unfortunately, Mexico lost this territory shortly after settlement and the Mormons were once again in an area under United States government control.  Additional Mormon emigrants continued to settle in the Utah Territory and with this, pressure was put on resources utilized by the Shoshone.  Heber C. Kimball, a church leader believed in Mormon “Manifest Destiny” and was known to have said “We won’t pay for land.  Land belongs to Our Father in Heaven.  We expect to plow it and plant it” (Madsen, 1985).  As early as 1849 Brigham Young sent men to chastise the Indians who were stealing and killing cattle although this was supposed to conflict with his beliefs as outlined in the Book of Mormon (Madsen, 1985).  Over the course of the next 10 to 15 years Young would rather feed the Indians than take punitive action.  As the best regions for farming were exploited by white settlers, Indians became more reliant on being fed by the church community which drained food stores and made the farmers angrier and more aggressive.  Starvation was the norm for many Indians.  Starvation and resentment on the part of the Shoshone only enhanced their desperation leading to further theft of crops and cattle by some of the Shoshone as they were in survival mode.  In addition to starvation, the natives were also plagued by diseases such as cholera, measles and small pox.

            Patrick E. Connor was born in 1820 and immigrated to the United States at the age of 12 from Ireland.  He initially joined the army at the age of 18 and often returned to service when not focusing on entrepreneurial interest.  When the Civil War began, he joined the Union Army while living in California and was made a Colonel in charge of the 3^rd California infantry.  Their orders were to protect the mail routes and telegraph lines in the western territory.  He eventually made his way to Salt Lake City in the Utah Territory where he ordered his men to build Fort Douglas.  Serving in this capacity left Connor and his men dismayed as they would have preferred to be fighting traitors in the east.  Plans were made to confront the group of Indians who resided at Bear to qualm the fears and concerns of the white settlers.

 

            The following is a synopsis of Colonel Patrick E. Connor’s official report paraphrasing his account of what happened on January 29^th, 1863 at Bear River.

            Word was received the Indians responsible for the recent attack on miners, massacre of emigrants during the past summer and generally wreaking havoc on the mail system. They were settled for the winter to the north approximately 140 miles or so away in the area called Bear River. Connor notified the district marshal of his intent to arrest Chiefs Bear Hunter, Sagwich and San Pitch at this location but had no intent on taking prisoners.  He was welcome to accompany his regiment if the marshal wished.

            They left Fort Douglas 4 days prior to the event with 220 California volunteers.  The group was divided into one larger and one smaller group; the smaller group was to lead so if detected, would be perceived as less threatening.  Men were mounted on horses and had several small cannons in tow.  Conditions were harsh and temperatures bitter but the men focused on the mission and no complaints were to be heard.  The regiment set camp the night before the encounter approximately 10 miles from the Indian encampment.  The plan called for the small group to depart around 2:00 in the morning with the larger group to follow an hour later, to engage the Indians at sunrise.

            The men were ordered to surround the camp and attack.  Battle ensued as the Indians awoke and vacated their lodges.  Claims were made by some of the men that the Indians were waving the scalps of white women trying to antagonize the soldiers.  They had the upper hand initially so the troops were required to change tactics.  At this point some of the Indians started to flee and we were able to shoot them while they were swimming in the icy water.  The battle lasted for almost 4 hours, until 10:00 in the morning.  The men experienced further suffering due the cold, wet conditions but still didn’t complain.

            His best estimate was they were up against 300 heavily armed warriors with ample amounts of ammunition.  In the end, he believed they killed 224 including Chiefs Bear Hunter, Sagwich and Leight.  Connor was unable to make an accurate count because of the need to get his wounded men to more hospitable conditions. He was sure some of them would have mobility issues the rest of their lives due to frostbite.  They left the remaining 160 or so women and children with a small amount of provisions (Connor, 1863). 

     Shoshone Oral Historian - Mae Timbimboo’s Version of the Bear River Massacre

            The land along the Bear River was a desirable location to spend the winter as it was centrally located in the Shoshone territory and it had a natural depression, willows and other vegetation which provided natural protection from the wind or storms.  It also had natural hot springs which served as a water source during the cold conditions.  Early in January 1863 a gathering of thousands of Shoshone people met to participate in the Warm Dance, a common occurrence to give thanks and appeal to the Creator for warmer conditions.  Games, winter sports and other methods of having fun occurred.  At its conclusion many of the visiting guest departed. 

            The arrival of the soldiers was expected by the Indian people. Tin Dup had a dream on January 27, 1863 which predicted the tragedy. He shared his dream and as a result left the following day with close to 40 tribal members. It is also said that Chief Sagwich was warned by an acquaintance that settlers in the area were working with Colonel Conner to fix things once and for all.  Sagwich was aware of the problems being caused by a small group of Indians.  The stories told in the native history specifically name those responsible, Indians whom were not a part of the Northwest band and were not present at Bear River (Parry, 2019).

            On the morning of January 29, 1863 Chief Sagwich arose early as he usually did.  He exited his lodge and observed an approaching haze. He knew the steam was rising off the horses and soldiers.  He called for all those sleeping to wake up and gather their weapons. They grabbed what was available; bow and arrow, tomahawks and a few rifles.  Sagwich gave orders not to shoot first hoping Conner would ask for those responsible to be turned over. This did not happen.  The soldiers attacked without notification of their intentions shooting all; men, women, children and babies.  Indians tried to escape by jumping in the river and heading for cover.  Some hid under the river bank in hopes of staying safe.  The story noted that one woman hiding under the bank was forced to kill her crying baby so as not to give away their location.  The snow was covered in blood.  Chief Bear Hunter suffered the most, perhaps of any Native American of all time. He was shot, kicked, tortured and finally finished by a glowing hot bayonet driven from ear to ear.  He never cried out.  Chief Sagwich managed to escape, contrary to Colonel Connor’s report on events.  Word of the massacre prompted the church to send 3 men from Franklin, a nearby town, to evaluate the site.  By their count and report, 400 Indians were dead.  It is thought that perhaps Conner’s count was only of men?  If accurate, this massacre would be the largest to have ever occurred in the United States.

            Colonel Conner went on to be promoted and was regarded as a hero. In ensuing years  Connor’s instructions to his troops regarding encounters with Indians was to “kill every Indian over 12 years old” (Parry, 2019).

 

            The Bear River Massacre wasn’t the first tragedy to strike the Indians of this country and certainly wasn’t to be the last.  The massacre served as an example of recurring events that Native Americans were subjected to by the Euro-Americans.  Commonly Native Americans were asked to give up their resources, usually made ill by disease, eventually blamed for taking a stand, forced to move and then the cycle repeats.  The belief in Manifest Destiny in this situation even crossed religious/moral obligations as the Mormon colonists disregarded their “values” to attain their objective.  The Shoshone, who survived the massacre dispersed to find places where they could begin again. Many of the Shoshone people such as Chief Sagwich joined the Church of Latter-Day Saints.  For the most part this didn’t enhance the quality of life for those who agreed to assimilate and often they were once again forced from their land.