The Indian Education Act
of 1891 gave authority to government officials to control the location,
activities and treatment of all Indian children and mandated the collection and
transportation of tribal children to Indian boarding schools. Total control of
the Indian children’s education was viewed as the most feasible option to
achieve assimilation and the adaptation of a perceived “civilized” lifestyle
for Native Americans. The governmental officials believed the children’s
separation from their families would reduce their families’ influence. Some
Indian people managed to survive with little to no repercussions after
attending these institutions, however, for the majority of Indian people, the
boarding school initiative made more of a negative impact than all other
efforts to destroy the Indian people which included massacres, starvation,
disease, loss of land, and Christianity. The outcome of the boarding school
legislation was a vulnerable population laced with disease, death, poverty, and
other social ills, such as rates of domestic violence, alcoholism, child abuse
and neglect higher than any other sectors of the population. Ongoing cultural
oppression, health disparities and a lack of access to services and economic
opportunity coupled with chronic poverty, have depleted hope for many tribal
families. The cumulative effects of chronic stress and unresolved historical
trauma have led to an increased risk for developing psychological and
behavioral disorders. The negative impact of the enforced boarding school
legislation still resonates with many Native American families today.
“The
truth about the US Indian boarding school policy has largely been written out
of the history books. There were more than 350 government-funded, and often
church-run, Indian Boarding Schools across the US in the 19th and 20th
centuries. Indian children were forcibly abducted by government agents, sent to
schools hundreds of miles away, and beaten, starved, or otherwise abused when
they spoke their native languages. Between 1869 and the 1960s, it’s likely that hundreds of
thousands of Native American children were removed from their homes and
families and placed in boarding schools operated by the federal government and
the churches. Though we don’t know how many children were taken in total, by
1900 there were 20,000 children in Indian boarding schools, and by 1925 that
number had more than tripled. The U.S. Native children that were voluntarily or
forcibly removed from their homes, families, and communities during this time
were taken to schools far away… Many children never returned home and their
fates have yet to be accounted for by the U.S. government” (The National Native
American Boarding School Healing Coalition, N.D., para. 3).
When boarding schools were first established families,
forced to rely on the U.S. government for sustenance, faced the threat of
losing their rations, annuities and other goods if they did not let the
government take their children and place them in these cold and harsh
institutions. A compulsory attendance law was passed by Congress in 1891. As a
result of the poor economy, many parents felt they had no choice but to send
their children to the boarding schools because they could not provide for them
(Child, 2000). Some of the children were sometimes provided better care when
they attended the boarding schools because of the problems their parents faced
such as alcoholism. Other reasons why they attended the boarding schools
included racism which was endemic towards Native Americans at the public
schools or they had cousins, siblings and other people they knew who attended
the schools.
The concept of the boarding school initiative began in 1875
when Richard Henry Pratt was given responsibility of 72 Indian men charged with
murder and rapine (the act of seizing property by force) at Fort Marion in St.
Augustine, Florida. During their stay, these prisoners served as laborers to
offset the cost of running the prison. They performed cleaning and maintenance
duties. Pratt rehabilitated these men. The prisoners were introduced to reading
and arithmetic in a classroom setting and worked part time at odd jobs at St.
Augustine. The Indian men adopted the appearance and characteristics of the
Euro-American population. These same Indian men were later placed in jobs
without guards. Following Pratt’s efforts to rehabilitate the Indian men, the
Carlisle Indian Boarding School was established by Pratt with support of the
federal government in 1879. The boarding schools were fashioned after the same
rehabilitative principles as the prison program, which included the school
attendants serving as laborers to offset costs (Child, 2000).
“A great general
has said that the only good Indian is a dead one, and that high sanction of his
destruction has been an enormous factor in promoting Indian massacres. In a
sense, I agree with the sentiment, but only in this: that all the Indians there
is in the race should be dead. Kill the Indian in him, and save the man.”
— Gen. Richard Henry Pratt
In
1879, Pratt established the Carlisle Boarding School in Carlisle, Pennsylvania
which served as a cruel assimilation and education project. Native American
children from various tribes and various locations from around the country were
kidnapped from reservations where they were sequestered with their families by
the U.S. government. The school employees transported the children to the
school where they succumbed to abuse and stripped of any semblance of their
culture and self-respect, completely traumatized. Their hair was chopped off
(their long hair represented their connection to Mother Earth, growth of their
spirit, extrasensory perception and connection to all things.). The school
employees scrubbed them with kerosene and they were forbidden to use their
native language, only the English language. They had to wear foreign clothing.
In the effort to reform nondominant cultures, they inflicted irreversible
damage (Irving, 2014). By 1917, the final year of operation of the Carlisle
Boarding School, there were 58 tribes represented in the student body (Child,
2000).
The
Indian children were given meaningless English names when they attended the
boarding schools. In the Native American tribal way of life, one was not
permitted to own anything that was provided to them by the Creator. The land,
food and other necessities were bestowed to them to use and must be honored.
The only thing that could be owned was their given names. Only one person in a
village had a specific name, and this name was derived by spiritual means such
as visions, dreams and naming ceremonies. Names provided their identity
throughout their lifetime. When English names were given to the children at the
boarding schools as a part of the assimilation process, this led to identity
confusion (Reyner and Eder, 2004).
“Conversion to Christianity was also deemed
essential to the cause. Indian boarding schools were expected to develop a
curriculum of religious instruction, placing emphasis on the Ten Commandments,
the Beatitudes and Psalms. Implanting ideas of sin and a sense of guilt were
part of Sunday schools. Christianity governed gender relations at the schools
and most schools invested their energy in keeping the sexes apart, in some
cases endangering the lives of the students by locking girls in their
dormitories at night — meaning they could not get out, even in the case of
fire...” (American Indian Relief Council, N.D., para. 14).
The religious instruction added to the confusion and
degradation of many Indian children. Oftentimes, they were abused in various
ways by the same people who were providing religious instruction. Children who
demonstrated resistance to the teaching practices and the regimented authority
were subjected to humiliation and harsh punishments. They suffered whippings
and unusual torture such as standing on their tiptoes with arms outstretched
while their hands were hit with wooden boards and rulers. The treatment of boys
was typically more severe than that of girls. Ruthless punishment occurred when
children tried to run away, although this did not deter many from attempting to
do so.
It may be difficult to imagine the shock these children
experienced when they were yanked from their homes and families, stripped of
their cultural identity, while forced to attend a foreign environment filled
with fear and hostility. A strange form of religion was forced upon them while
told they were savages. However, the dominant population continued to see a
solid purpose for the establishment of these institutions. The Carlisle School
led to the establishment of many similar boarding school institutions in
various locations around the country with intentions of civilizing the Native
American children to prepare them to fit into American society as servants and
laborers. The transformation included vast changes in religion, family structure,
economics (how they earned a living), how they expressed emotion, and so much
more (Irving, 2014). Their loss of identity formed mixed messages about their
heritage and about themselves, resulting in contempt for those in power as well
as their parents and elders.
Boarding schools were run like military camps. Indian
children were stringently taught how to follow orders. The children had to fall
into formation, march in a straight line, and oftentimes wore military clothing
and shoes. During the weekdays, the children attended school educational sessions.
They were taught English, math, history, and geography usually by Euro-American
teachers. Geography was an eye-opening experience when they learned about the
world and stars. When asked to draw pictures of the earth, they drew pictures
of dwellings, animals and vegetation (Adams, 1995). Some of the teachers tried to be kind and
helpful, but many were cruel and harsh.
On average, only a few hours a day was spent in the
classroom, and the other portion of the day was spent undertaking assigned
tasks. The children received minimal care and education. Learning how to
accomplish various tasks were thought to help prepare them for adulthood in the
white man’s world, because the only viable future was a white future. Girls
were prepared to work as servants or to become homemakers. Boys were trained in
the areas of gardening, repair and maintenance of homes and farms, the running
of farms, printing presses, and the building of houses and furniture.
Children who attended the boarding schools suffered from
various types of abuse. Concerning sexual abuse, one woman reported she spent
years in therapy until she finally grasped the fact, she had been a victim. The
shame and guilt she experienced as a result of the sexual abuse she was forced
to endure at the hands of a priest at a missionary boarding school caused her
chronic emotional stress into adulthood.
According to one report, nuns at the Holy Childhood Boarding
School in Harbor Springs, Michigan would maintain relationships with young boys
and these young boys would become confidants for these women. Mentally healthy
women in their 30s or 40s do not fall in love with boys who are 10, 11 or 12
years of age. Pedophiles work in a way
that does not permit children to refuse. It is cunning, measured, and done
under the pretext of fondness. These children were used as sexual outlets. Once
the sexually deviant person tired of the current victim, they dumped them and
preyed on other unsuspecting children. Victims often felt abandoned. Children
could not escape from their perpetrators. They had no one to turn to and they
were held captive because these institutions became their prison (Stanton,
2008).
Another report involved nuns at the same boarding school who
began their seduction by kissing the younger boys good night. One of the
abusive nuns was in her 20s, rather plain and chubby. The favored boys would
get kissed on the lips and she would tickle them. One of the people who attended the school
stated that a few years went by for him until the kisses started getting longer
and longer, and then he was taken to her bedroom. The boys were not expected to
perform sexual acts until they were approximately 12 years of age.
One day, another nun at another institution pulled a boy off
the playground and forced him to perform sexual acts, he and a pedophile nun
were caught in a compromising position by other nuns, yet the perpetrator did
not receive any retribution (Podles, 2008).
The children were habitually exposed to “institutionalized pedophilia”
and “sexual terrorism.” The pedophiles included, but were not limited to,
priests, nuns, teaching staff, and Protestant clergy.
When children first arrived at the school, they felt lonely
and isolated and as a result many suffered from homesickness. Most children who
attended these institutions were separated from their family before they were
developmentally mature. The boarding schools were often one hour or further
from the children’s homes. The expense of travel was more than most Indian
families could afford, which deterred them from visiting their children. In
1924, the Native American per capita annual income was approximately $81
(Churchhill, 2004).
Prior to the 1920s, boarding school officials would have to
seek preapproval from the local reservation superintendent or an Indian agent
before permission could be granted for children to go home, even for severe
hardship, such as deaths in the family and sick relatives. Indian parents learned to get around these
sanctions by stating their children were needed to assist with farming. Since
farming was a part of the assimilation process, it served as a more worthy
excuse. When John Collier filled the position as Commissioner of Indian Affairs
in 1933, these policies took a turn for the better. Students were permitted to go home for the
summer months and usually for family hardships.
Indian children developed alliances with each other and
looked after one another while attending these institutions. Many of the
children had never met Indian people from other tribes. Long-lasting Friendships
were often formed, some lasting their lifetimes. They made fun of the teachers
and gave them names the students felt best suited their personalities. On
occasion, they snuck out at night together and did things they knew were
forbidden activities, such as breaking into buildings on and off school
property. Sports, choirs, bands, and dances were other ways long lasting
friendships were developed and ways in which the children maintained their
sanity. Sharing the common experience of attending boarding schools was another
way in which life long bonds were established.
When a child was sent to bed without a meal, the other
children would often sneak them food. The children experienced what could be
referred to as slow, agonizing starvation. School officials were allotted very
limited funding, which served as a strong indication of the lack of importance
concerning Indian children.
Because many Indian children from various tribal nations
attended the boarding schools together, they shared a rich cultural exchange
referred to as pan-Indianness. They developed an understanding of other Indian
cultures while helping each of their acquired acquaintances with the harshness
of the boarding school experience. Ojibwe students met Indian children from
various tribes such as the Lakotas, Oneidas and Poncas. The Indian children
became more alike, they learned a portion of other Indian languages along with
the enforced English language. Students who left the boarding schools after
graduation married people from other tribes and summer gatherings on
reservations became intertribal events. New political alliances were created
and the schools became a part of a joint history (Child, 2000).
“The Carlisle school developed a “placing out system,” placing Indian students in the mainstream community for
summer or a year at a time where they could learn skills other than farming.
While monitored carefully at Carlisle, other outing programs were often
exploitive. At the Phoenix Indian School, girls became the major source of
domestic labor for white families, boys were placed in seasonal harvest or
other jobs unwanted by white or immigrant laborers and the students were
unsupervised, learning very little from their outing experiences” (American
Indian Relief Council, N.D., para. 11). Other boarding schools followed suit
and many Indian children became laborers for white people who lived near the
schools.
During the 1920s, the Meriam report revealed the lack of
fresh food and milk for boarding school residents in the United States. This
report involved an investigation concerning failed U.S. Indian policies in
various areas such as education. The average per capita food allowance was 11
cents per day. As a result, students suffered from malnutrition because of the
shortage of food. The Meriam report suggested 35 cents per day for each
student. This would ensure proper nutrition and adequate food supply. During
the time of the Meriam report, the children’s diet mostly consisted of meat and
starch. Vegetables and fruit were rarely served. They did not receive milk on a
daily basis. The school staff promised the children would receive adequate
clothing but oftentimes they sent letters home requesting jackets, hats, shoes
and other attire. Good Housekeeping series in 1929, author of the
series, Vera L. Connolly, wrote about the past and present injustices
concerning Indian people. She defined one of the worse circumstances involved
children who were removed from their families and reared in over-crowded,
disease ridden boarding schools, places where the government officials
overworked and starved the students. Average enrollment in the Indian boarding
schools exceeded capacity by approximately 40 percent (Child, 2000).
The recommendations put forth by those who conducted the
Meriam study were often ignored. On another note, during the time the Meriam
team was observing some of the boarding schools, they made notice of the
extreme levels of quietness. Episodes of intermingling and comfortable
conversations were non-existent (Churchhill, 2004).
Disease did run rampant in the boarding schools with
tuberculosis being one of the most serious. Measles, mumps, influenza, and
trachoma, a disease that inflicted the eyes, were other health maladies. Often,
the parents were not informed about their children’s illnesses. Children with
these diseases and healthy students were kept together at the schools.
Overcrowding was another issue. These schools were often filled to capacity and
beyond. Due to the lack of medical services and poor diets, the children often
died as a result of contracting diseases. Healthy and sick children resided
together in the same rooms. Sometimes the children’s loneliness and
homesickness became too much for them and they became physically ill. Parents
were often not informed when their children were sick. Tribal nations carried
out special ceremonies for someone who passed on. These traditional practices were
not honored at the boarding schools.
Neglect is another form of oppression in which a person is
deprived of love, care, nurturance, support, or other pertinent assistance, as
well as basic material needs such as food and shelter. They often experienced
failure to thrive. As a result, many Indian people associated these
institutions with death and despair.
The boarding school experience did prepare children to
communicate with the English-speaking population. A high percentage of the
attendees had a difficult time returning to their home of origin. Their
difficulty of fitting in with their families was partially due to the biased
instruction they received at the school, as well as the lack of bonding with
their families because of their long absences. Much of the native language was
lost, along with many of the traditional customs. A multitude of boarding
school attendees did not return to the tribal communities.
A vast number of Indian children were released from the
boarding schools when they were ready to attend high school. After spending
years of following the stringent rules at the schools, they had to try and fit
in with their families and the outside world. They were not taught how to think
for themselves.
Teenagers have been known to have difficulty making smart
choices. During the late teens, the brain begins to develop its prefrontal
cortex and inferior cortex, the areas that supervise judgment and self-control.
This process is not completed until the mid-twenties. As a result, teenagers and
young adults have been subject to making bad judgments, lack inhibitory
control, and experience a likelihood of developing addictive behaviors. These
susceptibilities can be lessened if they receive caring support.
Many of the teenagers who left these institutions were not
welcomed by their families. The years of separation and the vast differences
these attendees had with their families caused them to feel alienated and the
needed support and guidance was nonexistent. A large number of Native American people
continue to live with regrets that resulted from making poor choices when they
were teenagers and young adults because of their boarding school experience.
Many Indian people married individuals who mirrored the caregivers at these
institutions and ended up in loveless relationships and/or divorce. Again, the
negative impact of these harsh environments resonates throughout tribal
communities today (Child, 2000).
The boarding schools served as a harsh reminder of white supremacy and
how the Native Americans were viewed by the Euro-Americans. These institutions
proved to be one of the most harmful bureaucratic actions taken against the
indigenous. The children were trained to be to be replicas of the white race
and they received minimal care and education while attending the schools. They
suffered from malnutrition, neglect, severe physical, emotional, sexual abuse
and cultural abuse. As a result, Native Americans continue to suffer from
higher rates of alcoholism, domestic violence, disease, suicide, poverty and
many other societal ills than the rest of the population. Memories of the
boarding school experience for many of the residents remained strong and carry
complex emotions. The U.S. government has never apologized for the hardships
entrenched by the boarding school legislation and the legacy of genocide of the
boarding school institutions still exists.
