Thursday, September 3, 2020

Wendigo

 


The Wendigo was gaunt to the point of emaciation, its desiccated

skin pulled tautly over its bones. With its bones pushing out against its skin, its

complexion the ash gray of death, and its eyes pushed back deep into

their sockets, the Wendigo looked like a gaunt skeleton recently disinterred

from the grave. What lips it had were tattered and bloody.

Its body was unclean and suffering from suppurations of the flesh,

giving off a strange and eerie odor of decay and decomposition

of death and corruption.

“Basil Johnston, Ojibwe teacher and scholar, Ontario, Canada”

 

 

Barry, Clarence, Elenore and Tracy unknowingly embarked on a terrifying journey in which only two of them survive. The ground, covered in a thick layer of snow, crunched when walked upon. Cumulus clouds blanketed the morning the winter sky. Crows flew from tree to tree. A monster stomped through the forest looking for prey. Hungry all the time, he is only truly satisfied when he eats human flesh. An unsuspecting rabbit crossed its path. He pounced. The rabbit did not know what hit him. The monster gobbled up the prey and started looking for more. The more he ate the bigger he got, the bigger he got the hungrier he became. These creatures, known to Algonquian tribes of the Great Lakes region and other locations, are giants, much larger than humans.

They are referred to as the Wendigo and are known to be malicious and murderous. They are associated with starvation, the north, and frigid cold temperatures. They hunt all year round but seem to be hungriest during the colder months. Their origins vary from one culture to the next. The Wendigo may have been human at one point and became possessed, forced to become a monster or they were born a monster.

            The most common belief is that a Wendigo originates from a human who had to resort to cannibalism to survive. This terrible circumstance occurred more often when Indian people and settlers found themselves stranded and in a desperate situation, starving and trying to endure the cold of winter. Individuals may be forced to eat the dead of their traveling companions in order to survive. Some legends involve humans who have succumbed to greed, gluttony and excess and may be possessed by the Wendigo. This belief portrayed the importance of cooperation and moderation.

Barry stretched as he woke up from a long slumber. He nudged Elenore. She turned towards him and smiled. The cabin they rented with their friends was warm and toasty, each bedroom was equipped with a fire place that coupled with the electric baseboard heating system. Elenore reached over and grabbed Barry’s arm and pulled him back into bed. He didn’t mind. Being close to Elenore was one of his favorite pastimes. After they snuggled for several minutes, Elenore entered their private bathroom and took a shower.

            Barry opened the bathroom door and said, “I smell bacon cooking. Hurry up so we can eat before we hit the trails.”

            “Okay,” responded Elenore. She finished rinsing the conditioner from her hair.

Elenore enjoyed staying at cabin. This was their second year. They decided to invite Clarence and Tracy, two of their best friends, to join them. Snowshoeing the trails during the crisp winter months in northern Minnesota was a perfect way to spend time in nature. They would talk around the fireplace in the living room at night about how things may have been during the earlier times. One conversation involved the snowshoe priest, Bishop Baraga, and how he snowshoed everywhere around Michigan territory during the winter months. It amazed them that he could travel so far.

Elenore joined the others to eat a hearty breakfast of bacon, pancakes and scrambled eggs. Freshly brewed coffee topped off the satisfying breakfast. Elenore and Barry cleaned up the kitchen and did the dishes after everyone was finished eating.

“I will finish blow drying my hair so we can take off for our hike,” said Elenore.

“I am glad I showered last evening. I did not want to be outside with even slightly damp hair. It’s 18 degrees out there right now with a wind of 10 to 15 miles per hour. I don’t want my hair to freeze,” said Tracy.

“I wish I would have thought of that. I am so used to showering in the morning.”

Barry and Clarence brought in the snowshoes to warm them up so they would be easier to put on.

Barry spread the embers in the fireplaces so the fire would die out while they were on their trek.

A loud clanging sound rang through the cabin. They looked at each other to see who was going to check out what made the loud sound. Barry grabbed a long thin log from the pile by the fireplace and opened the door to the back yard where it sounded like the loud noise came from. Clarence was close behind him. Clarence pointed to the large metal garbage can that was tipped over on the concrete skirting of the storage shed. Three raccoons scurried off when they saw Clarence and Barry. They smiled when they saw the raccoons. Living in the city did the city did not afford them opportunities to see much wild life.

“What caused that noise?” asked Tracy.

“It was raccoons digging through the garbage cans,” replied Barry.

“Is this bear country?” asked Elenore.

“There may be a few black bear, but they are more afraid of you than you are of them. Besides they are hibernating,” replied Clarence.

“I heard that if you surprise them, they may attack you,” said Tracy.

“I guess we will need to keep talking, singing or whatever so we don’t surprise them,” said Elenore.

“I would not mind seeing a bear,” said an indignant Clarence. He knew the women would be serious about not spooking a bear so they were not going to be quiet. His hopes of seeing a bear were squelched.

“I am going to pack us peanut butter and jelly sandwiches and a thermos of hot chocolate in case we are gone awhile and we start getting hungry or thirsty,” said Elenore.

“I will pack that thermal pack so the sandwiches won’t freeze,” said Barry. Barry usually packed anything he could he think of. He never wanted to be without anything they may need. He prided himself on how prepared he was.

To pass the time, the men chopped wood for the fireplaces. Chopping wood made the men feel useful and it gave them an opportunity to show off their muscles. Their broad shoulders and sleek waists were the result of visiting the gym three to four times a week. The women also visited the same gym and were in very good shape. Tracy ran the 25-mile marathon last summer. She prided herself with maintaining her runner’s body. Elenore was not a runner.

They packed their back packs with water and extra mittens and hats. Their snowshoes were top of the line, easy to put on and lightweight. Barry and Clarence worked at a law firm and recently made partner. Elenore and Tracy worked at the same advertising agency. Money was not an issue. They were established in their careers and planned on being childless so they could enjoy the finer things in life.

Elenore and Tracy placed hats over their heads, covered their hats with their hoodies and then clamped their hoods of their thermal coats to ensure their warmth.

They headed to the trail. The sun brightened the snow, it crunched as they walked on it with their snowshoes. Snow hung heavily on the trees. The group was elated that the trail was groomed. That would make the excursion even more enjoyable.

Trees lined the trail on both sides. They stopped to look at a babbling brook and small water fall. Posing several times to take selfies and group pictures to send to their friends back home.

Barry picked up a strange scent. “Smell that?” he asked Clarence.

“I do.”

A large group of hawks were circling above them like buzzards circling their prey.

Tracy approached Clarence and asked if he noticed the strange smell.

He nodded.

“Let’s head back and call it a day,” said Barry.

Everyone turned around and headed back to the cabin. They had at least a couple of  hours of snowshoeing before they would reach the cabin. After an hour, a group of four other people, who were also snowshoeing, were getting closer to them. Soon they met.

“Hi. I think you are staying in the cabin down the road from ours,” said one of the men.

“Hi. My name is Barry and he offered to shake the man’s hand.”

“My name is Brad,” replied the man. He shook Barry’s hand.

“Let me introduce my group. This is my wife Elenore, this is Clarence and his wife Tracy.”

“This is my wife Gertrude and my friend George and his wife Bethany.”

            Something made a loud crunching sound off to the side of the trail and the eight of them looked towards the direction of the sound.

            Brad pulled a handgun from his backpack and George did the same. Brad fired his gun in the air to scare off whatever made the sound. Tracy and Elenore jumped, not expecting the gunfire to be so loud.

            “We’re used to the sound of gunfire. Our husbands belong to a shooting association and gun clubs and take us with them all the time. We both learned how to shoot guns and have our own pistols,” said Gertrude.

            “I’m impressed,” said Tracy. She looked over at Elenore and thought she felt the same.

            “We smelled something strange a way back on the trail,” said Barry.

            “Never smelled anything like it before, it smelled rotten and sweet at the same time. That’s the best way to describe it,” said Clarence.

            “We will head back with you guys,” said George. Their group turned around and started following Barry and the rest of his group.

            They finally reached the cabins and Barry turned to George and asked if they wanted to join them at their cabin that evening.

            “We have a lot of different kinds of meat smoked from the day before. Why don’t you come over to our cabin tonight,” replied Brad.

            “What time?” asked Elenore.

            “Would 7:00 work for you?” asked Brad.

            “7:00 it is,” replied Barry.     

 

            Back at the cabin, Barry and Clarence cracked opened a couple of beers after pouring a couple of glasses of wine for their wives and sat down at the kitchen table to talk about what happened.

            “I don’t know about you, but I think something terrible is hiding in those woods,” said Clarence.

            “I’m with you. I think I will bypass going into the woods tomorrow and perhaps we will head into town and do a little shopping. I saw a couple of shops that may sell souvenirs that the wives will really like.”

            “We need to explore getting guns and learning how to shoot so we can protect our wives and ourselves,” said Clarence.

            “I know of a couple of places that sell guns and there is a place with a shooting range not too far from where our office is,” said Brad.

            “Since it’s only 4:00, I think we have time to take a nap,” said Clarence as he winked at Tracy.

 

            Their new friends’ cabin was larger and had a second floor. Tracy and Elenore were given a tour. They drooled over the sauna and hot tub in the rec room.

            “You can come over anytime to use our sauna and hot tub,” said Gertrude.

            “That’s awfully friendly of you,” replied Tracy.

            “Dinner’s ready,” shouted Brad.

            It was a spread. There were smoked strips of New York Strip, turkey, chicken and ham. A bean dish, tossed salad and fruit sat in middle of the table next to the platter of meat.

            “There’s enough food here for an army,” said George proudly.

            “Hope everyone is hungry,” said Brad. He grabbed his plate and started loading it up with meat.

            “Save room for desert,” said Gertrude.

            “Desert?” said Elenore.

            “Yes, we made brownies and apple pie,” said Bethany.

            Everyone gorged themselves on the delicious food.

            “I am going to make a fire. We have stories to tell you about what we think was in the woods today,” said George.

            “I am interested in what you think we heard and smelled,” replied Barry.

 

            After everyone help clean up the kitchen, they sat down on the large sectional in front of the fireplace. George made a roaring fire. The blue and yellow flames danced around the burning logs. It was mesmerizing to watch.

            “We were talking to some of the local Indian people at one of the cafes yesterday and he told us about monsters that live in this neck of the woods. Scared the bejebees out of us so we decided to carry our guns with us today,” said George.

            “The Algonquian Indians have been telling legends for many years about monsters called the Wendigo. They told us they can possess you and get you to come to them. Wendigos prefer to eat human flesh and can survive in the harshest of weather. It’s like they prefer the cold. The more they eat the larger they get. They walk on two feet and may have been human before they were possessed and made into a monster. They have a funny smell and may smell like burnt flesh. They told us about a well-known case in which this man named Jack Fiddler, who happened to be a medicine man used his powers and defeated 14 Wendigos. These monsters are huge, some as tall as trees,” said Brad.

            Barry, Clarence, Tracy and Elenore looked at each other with huge eyes. They looked like they saw a ghost.

            “Even though this is scary, I think you need to hear about what we learned from the locals,” said Brad.

            “Go on,” encouraged Barry.

            “They told us that the Wendigo can take over a host slowly, taking over the person’s mind and body. They will give them nightmares and the host will become sleep deprived, slowly losing a grip on their sanity. They will experience an unbearable burning sensation with their feet and in the end will run into the woods barefoot no matter what time of year, screaming like a madman. They knew of a few people from their tribe that they have lost forever. Never to be seen again,” said Brad.

            “Do you think that is what we smelled today?” asked Elenore. She huddled close to Barry and pulled her knees to her chest like she was protecting her feet.

            “Yes, I believe that’s what you smelled and what we heard,” replied George.

            “Let’s forget about this for so we can all have a good night’s sleep tonight,” said Elenore.

            “Anybody up for a dip in the hot tub?” asked Bethany.

            “We don’t have a swimsuit,” said Tracy.

            “Let’s use our undergarments and you can use our robes while your things are drying,” said Bethany.

            “That will work,” replied Tracy. She was glad she wore a tank top over her bra so she would be more concealed.

            The hot tub was nice. They talked about their families, jobs and where they went to school. The wine was going to the women’s heads.

            “We should call it an evening,” said Tracy. She yawned and tried to cover it up.

            “Do you want to join us tomorrow when we go into town?” asked Elenore.

            “We would love that,” replied Bethany before anyone else could respond.

            “I am going to drive you to your cabin. You can’t take any chances at this time of night,” said George. He grabbed his gun and led them to his SUV.

            Before they closed the doors to the SUV, they heard howling off in a distance.

            “That’s just coyotes. You don’t have to be concerned about them unless you are a small animal,” said George.

            Elenore grabbed Barry’s hand. He squeezed her hand to reassure her.

           

            Barry was tossing and turning in bed that evening. He was having the terrible dreams. One of the dreams involved being chased by a large, scary monster. In another dream, he was tied up in the standing position and a monster was about to eat him. He woke up shaking. Elenore held him close and told him he was safe.

 

            Barry was up cooking breakfast. He was using the waffle iron that came with the cabin. Fresh strawberries were crushed to put on top of the waffles.

            “Something smells good,” said Clarence. Clarence always hated his name but did not want to hurt his parents’ feelings so he didn’t legally change it. He was named after his great grandfather.

            Clarence walked over to the counter to see what Barry was doing.

            Barry looked over and smiled at Clarence. Barry decided to cook breakfast to keep his mind off the dreams he had the night before.

            Tracy and Elenore walked into the kitchen and sat down at the kitchen table.

            “Want some coffee?” asked Elenore. She poured a cup of coffee from the carafe and handed it over to Tracy after she nodded.

            “You look tired, Elenore,” said Tracy.

            “Barry was having nightmares last night so I held him close to me to provide him with reassurance and I had the light on. He said the dreams were so real.”

            “I am sorry to hear that, Barry,” said Tracy.

            “I slept like a log,” said Clarence.

            “I may take a nap some time today so I can be peppy for tonight,” said Barry.

            “What time are we going into town?” asked Elenore.

            “I think we plan on meeting our new friends at the diner at about 12:30,” replied Clarence.

            Everyone enjoyed the waffles and departed to their separate rooms to shower and get dressed.

           

            “Hi, everyone,” said Clarence. Their four new friends saved them seats at the diner. Another table had to be pushed next to theirs to accommodate everyone.

            Clarence opened the menu and started reading some of the choices to Tracy. She decided on the whitefish sandwich with fries and Clarence decided to pick his usual choice of a hamburger and fries. The others had a little more trouble deciding what they wanted to order. Most of the food was cooked on the grill and in fryers and they wanted something a little healthier after all they ate the night before. Elenore, Bethany and Gertrude ordered salads and a cup of soup. Brad and George and Barry all ordered the turkey subs.

            Barry told everyone about the dreams he had the night before.

            “I wonder if I put some scary thoughts in your head when I told you about the Wendigo,” said Brad.

            “You may have.”

            One of the town’s tribal elder’s ears perked up and he pulled up a chair to their table.

            “You had dreams about the Wendigo, didn’t you?” asked the elder.

            “Perhaps I did,” replied Barry.

            “That is not a good sign. The monster may be targeting you,” said the elder.

            “Why do you say that?” asked Barry. He looked concerned and looked at Elenore to get her reaction. She also looked concerned.

            “When they target you, they start by messing with your thoughts and dreams and it sounds like that’s what happened to you last night.”

            “I usually sleep like a log and I don’t remember any of my dreams,” said Barry.

            “He’s right. I normally have to ask him to lie on his side because he is snoring,” said Elenore.

            “My son went missing two months ago. He started having nightmares just like you,” said the elder.

            “You never found him,” inquired Brad.

            “No. There was no trace of him,” replied the elder.

             “I want to forget about all this horrible stuff and perhaps head home earlier than planned,” said Elenore.

            “I think that may be a good idea,” said Tracy.

            “Don’t let your guard down at all. Do not wander off. I would stay in your cabins until you are ready to leave or book rooms at the Cherry Blossum Inn if you would feel safer in town,” warned the elder. The elder left their table as soon as he warned them.

            “What do you want to do?” asked Barry.

            “I would like to check out tomorrow and head for home. I know I am talking for everyone but you can’t be too careful. That monster may be after you, Barry,” said Tracy.

            “I think Tracy is right. We can check out tomorrow and leave the key under the mat as instructed for the next people,” said Barry.

            “I have an idea. Why don’t you guys move into our cabin. We have plenty of room and it may be safer. At least for tonight before you leave tomorrow,” offered Brad.

            “I like that they have an upstairs. I would feel safer,” replied Elenore.

            “Then that’s what we will do. We will clean our cabin and move into yours for tonight,” said Barry.

            “The food was really good. I enjoyed my soup immensely,” said Bethany.

            “I enjoyed my hamburger,” said Clarence. He rubbed his belly.

            “I want to go shopping and pick up a few souvenirs,” said Gertrude.

            They enjoyed exploring the shops and were surprised to find replicas of Wendigos in one of the Native American shops. The owner of the shop told them the replicas ward off the horrible creatures and also told them about placing sweetgrass and sage around their cabin to protect them. They did not buy anything in that store. They were from the city and were never exposed to any Native American customs so it made them feel uncomfortable.

           

            They returned to their cabins and Elenore, Barry, Tracy and Clarence started packing up their things and brought them to the car except for small overnight bags to take to Brad’s cabin. They heard coyotes howling in a distance and then they heard yelping like the sound of a dog if it was injured. They hurried back to the cabin.

            “I am never going to go to a place like this that is in middle of the woods again,” said Elenore.

            “I am never going to, either,” replied Tracy.

           

            Before the sun set they headed to Brad’s cabin.

            They enjoyed a hearty game of Pictionary and ended up realizing that their new friends were as competitive as they were. The eight of them ended the evening playing Apples to Apples and laughed so hard their sides hurt. The bottles of wine they consumed added to their merriment. The clock in the den struck midnight.

            “I better turn in before I turn into a pumpkin,” chimed Barry.

            “I hope you have a restful sleep. I think you are going to find the beds very comfortable,” said Brad.

            “Thanks for letting us stay here,” said Elenore.

           

            It was 3:00 in the morning. Barry sat up. He had a blank look on his face. He stood up and walked towards the bedroom door. He opened the door quietly and crept out into the hall. In a few minutes, he was outside standing in the snow because his feet felt like they were on fire. Barry was sleep walking. His name was being called. He walked towards the voice. Barry was led into a deep, dark cavern. He as tied up.

            Elenore felt Barry’s side of the bed. She discovered he wasn’t there. She jolted out of bed and ran to find Barry. He was no where to be found. Terrified she screamed for everyone to wake up. Streams of early daylight fell upon the dark kitchen tiles. Everyone came running.

            “What’s wrong?” asked a terrified Bethany.

            “Barry’s missing,” responded Elenore.

            “We will get dressed and look outside for Barry. You stay put,” ordered Brad.

            The three men were exploring outside around the perimeter of the forest. Afraid to walk into the forest.

            “I think we need to go into town and get the sheriff to help us and perhaps some other men will join in on the search,” said Clarence. He was fretting and rubbing his hands together and through his hair. Everybody was concerned.

            The three men rode into town with the four women and stopped at the local sheriff’s office. The sheriff agreed to gather a bunch of men together to start the search.

            The large group of men, twenty-five in all loaded with guns walked into the forest on the groomed path. Clarence was also given a gun. He did have some experience hunting with his dad so he was somewhat familiar with using a gun. They gave him a pistol.

            Clarence’s back was to the forest, when a large hairy arm reached out to grab him. No one saw it happen until they turned to check on him. They called out Clarence’s name. There was no answer. The group of men had two men to find. They were never located.

Bethany and Gertrude held Tracy and Elenore for a long time, while they sobbed and sobbed. Scared and heartbroken, they decided to leave Minnesota and return to Chicago.

Tracy and Elenore returned without their husbands. Both women moved in with their parents. Grief grabbed them and did not let go of them for months after their time in Minnesota. They never returned to the woods again.

           

            The Algonquin Indians told legends about the Wendigos. Some believed they actually existed while others wanted everyone to live a life without gluttony and to live in cooperation with others. The Wendigos origins vary, some were born a monster and others made into their monsters after they were forced to eat human flesh due to starvation. Reports of Wendigos go back to the 1600s. The television show Supernatural portrayed a Wendigo as a collector of humans so they could eat them throughout the long cold months. Wendigos were known to always be hungry and the more they ate the larger they became. Many people of all ages have been reported missing in locations in which Wendigos were known to exit. Beware of the Wendigo, they may be watching you.    

 

 

 

           


 

 

           

 

Trail of Tears

 

On May 28th in 1830 almost 190 years ago President Andrew Jackson signed the Senate Bill known as the Indian Removal Act. This act forced five Southeastern tribal nations which included Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole East of the Mississippi from their home lands along with additional tribes such as the Fox, Kickapoo, Lenape, Miami, Omaha, Ottawa, Potawatomi, Sauk, Shawnee and Wyandot. Smaller tribes were evicted from their homelands, also. The eviction from their home lands referred to as the “Trail of Tears,” a black eye for the history of the U.S., served as one of the most horrible acts of genocide in the history of Native Americans. The “Trail of Tears” is also referred to as an “Indian Holocaust.”  The government was looking for ways to take care of the “Indian problem” and procure the Indian people’s assets. Some of the officials viewed the assets held by the Cherokee and other tribes as a benefit to be sold and used as soon as they were sent on their way. Census figures revealed a significant amount of livestock, sawmills, blacksmith shops and so much more that were in the possession of the Cherokee people. The Cherokee tribal nation was a prosperous nation. Officials and white settlers could not wait to get their hands on their assets. A few believed it was in their best interest to vacate because their lives may be in danger.

The Cherokee resided on a vast amount of territory in Georgia, Alabama and Tennessee. Other tribal nations lived as far south as Florida. A new Indian territory in what is now Oklahoma awaited them after traveling on foot for thousands of miles. The Trail of Tears represented a long, difficult march for the Cherokee people. Many lost their lives due to cold weather, starvation and disease. Another end result of this heinous act was the disruption of their culture.

Dr. Howard Zinn, historian, in his ground breaking literary work “A People’s History of the United States 1492 – Present, referred President Jackson to “the most aggressive enemy of the Indians in early American History” (Coard, 2017, para. 3). He delineated the president’s actions involving the Indian Removal Act as “the most complete genocide in U.S. history” (Coard, 2017, para. 3).

 

            Congregationalists, an interdenominational missionary organization, were descendants of  the Puritans. They supported Indian rights and opposed slavery. This organization gained political influence. Their board consisted of business and political leaders which included congressmen. The financing of its missions, which encompassed much of the world, came from wealthy merchants, industrialists, church members and pastors. The board offered an opportunity to create an evolving United States, slow down the progress of New England ties, and create a more humane governmental structure. The group of Congregationalists viewed the Cherokee as having the ability to advance economically.

            President Madison faced different demands and Congress and the President were requested to solve the Indian problem by their constituents. The southern plantation owners voiced their desire to enhance their land ownership and provide land to their sons for plantations. Land-speculators such as Andrew Jackson, and governors and senators sought votes from the wealthy entrepreneurs. They applied a vast amount of pressure to be heard and have their requests honored. They believed the Indians could be civilized but did not want to wait for that to happen.

             In 1816, an attempt to bring the Cherokee up to speed, expedited by the Congregationalists’ American Board and partially funded by President Madison and the Secretary of War, William H. Crawford, a group of trained missionaries were sent to work with the Cherokee. The mission houses were paid for by the federal government.

            The missionaries received many complaints from the Cherokee parents about their children being terrified because of threats of eternal burning. Fire of this nature did not exist. Chief John Ross stepped in and served as an interpreter and translated the fears the Cherokee faced. John proposed the Cherokee sell their land to pay for the mission schools. He wanted the missionaries to succeed with their endeavor to change the Cherokee. He was a personable, friendly, and wealthy farm owner who had a slew of slaves under his command. A sizeable group of Cherokee people decided to migrate to the West. They went as far as Arkansas in 1817.

 

            Andrew Jackson started his campaign to move the Cherokee people westward in 1817. As a result of being appointed as a federal commissioner, he sent his agents from town to town to push his point of Indian removal. Bribery, utilized as their method of choice, provided a method of enticement to gain support from the Cherokee. He promised they would be granted the same amount of land west of the Mississippi that they currently resided on. Promises of a receipt of blankets, guns, brass kettles and beaver traps were made to the Cherokees who decided to migrate west. Jackson, called out on the fraudulent bribes, continued to seek support. He managed to receive a million acres rather than the two million acres he wanted to develop by his land agents who happened to be friends and business associates of his. He continued his efforts to move the Cherokee (Ehle, 1988).

 

            In 1830, the Indian Removal Act was pushed forward by Wilson Lumpkin, a young congressman from Georgia. He was motivated to save the Cherokee people and members of other tribes. He considered the situation as life or death for the native people. The bill involved the exchange of lands from where they resided in the east to lands in the west. Representative Lumpkin felt the bill represented his diligent work to save the Indian people. More than a million people signed petitions which went against the proposed bill but he referred to the petitioners as “Northern fanatics.” Lumpkin’s efforts supported President Jackson’s goals.

            He feared for the Indian people even though he thought they could be civilized. Lumpkin believed  the Cherokees undermined their futures by remaining in Georgia, his speech relayed his concerns. “They will every day be brought into closer contact and conflict with the  population, diminish the spirit of benevolence that white men felt toward the Indians, causing white citizens to withhold aid from these unfortunate people” (Inskeep, 2015, p. 230).

            Five southern Indian nations resided on a significant amount of land east of the Mississippi: the Choctas and Chickasaws lived by the great river, the Creeks and Cherokees stationed further east and the Seminoles in Florida. All lived in peace with their white neighbors. However, newspapers reported otherwise. A man from the Creek nation tried to flag down a stagecoach. A previous agreement was set forth by the Creek nation and their white neighbors that a toll would be paid. Instead of paying the toll they insulted the Creek man named Tuskina and reported him as being in a drunken state. Tuskina managed to get in front of the stagecoach again and he pulled out his small pocket knife. The driver and passengers, alarmed concerning Tuskina’s actions, waited for an hour and a half for him to calm down. Following the incident, rumors of an Indian attack spread like wildfire. A couple of groups of cavalry descended on the Creek nation and searched for Tuskina. Authorities moved to isolate the Creek nation and ordered any white man who was not married to an Indian woman to move away from the Creek settlement. Many people were surprised by the overreaction. A black mark scared the Creek reputation as a result of this discourse. The white settlers expected an Indian attack because they have been provoking them for years (Inskeep, 2015).

            A multitude of discussions were held in Washington during the spring of 1830 and the end result of these discussion was that it was not safe for the Indians to reside in the south. A discussion covered what the Indians wanted, did they want to move west or stay put? Some of the officials felt they should not be forced to move. Henry R. Storrs of New York spelled out the intent of the bill which was to clear Indians from southern real estate.

            The “Indian Removal Act” was being put to a vote. In the Senate, Jackson supporters rallied their strength. A few lawmakers took up the Indians’ cause. The House met a varied response to the bill. The seats were apportioned according to the population. The North experienced greater influence. Edward Everett, a young congressman, claimed the Indian Removal Act was going to be more expensive than its supporters asserted. A few southerners opposed the act. When the roll was called on May 26, David Crockett appealed to his loyalty to the Indian people by voting no. Jackson supporters stayed strong with their convictions. The Indian Removal Act was passed with 102 votes for and 97 against. The act cleared the House of Representatives.

            In 1817, Jackson paid tens of thousands of dollars for more than a million acres of Cherokee land and he took additional land and did not pay them any money. In 1830, the President raged about the Cherokees only holding out for money so he vowed to annihilate them. He changed his mind and decided to try to throw money at the problem again. He offered them 2.5 million dollars for the remaining Cherokee land and an additional ½ million if the Cherokee assumed the cost of travel to the west. The Cherokee gained a stronger hold in the area and as a result were being paid 50 cents an acre instead of the standard few cents. John Ross purported that the white settlers be paid to relocate instead of the Indian people. Jackson believed the majority of his constituents supported him and Ross believed the majority of his people, the Cherokee nation, supported him. However, some of the members of the Cherokee nation believed Ross was deluded and he was leading them toward disaster. In 1833, the offer of 2.5 million dollars was back on the table. By 1835, the leaders of the Treaty Party gathered in New Echota to discuss negotiations.

A $5 million settlement for their land was refused. The Treaty Party and the federal government sought to persuade everyone that their act of negotiation represented what the Cherokee people wanted. Public attendance at the public conference to discuss negotiations was dismally small. John Ross met with the administration in Washington and as soon as they learned about the Treaty Party meeting in New Echota they stopped talks with Ross. A two-thirds majority was required to pass the treaty, if the Cherokees were united. They were not. The treaty prevailed by a single vote. The majority, the Washington administration, ruled.

Some of the Cherokee did not wait until the deadline of May 1838 to vacate their lands.  Four hundred sixty-six people, half of them children boarded a dozen flatboats that parked on the Tennessee River. They departed the Cherokee Nation on March 3, 1837. Emigrants traveled by land also. On October 13, 1837 emigrants traveled by wagon when they departed the Cherokee Nation. Sickness prevailed for some of the travelers of all ages and they lost their lives during this journey (Inskeep, 2015).

Cherokee women were seen planting corn for a fall harvest. That enraged the white settlers. It appeared that the Cherokee people did not plan on vacating the land. The news of the planting got back to Washington. The white settlers put their foot down and said a wandering Indian did not own the land they hunted on. They must improve the land by adding a house, fencing and they had to farm the land. Things were getting heated and something had to be done about the unwanted squatters.  Most of the Cherokee were not squatters. They were settled on large plots of land, crowing corn and raising livestock. A few wanderers were used as an example of how the Cherokee nation as a whole was not living in a manner conducive to what was expected of them by the white settlers.

July of 1838, General Scott being awarded the responsibility of the removal of the remainder of the Cherokee people, worked diligently to remove 11,000 Cherokee people who were still living in the East. Many troops and volunteers, enlisted to aid in the venture, came from many backgrounds. Scott was concerned about the Georgians because they appeared to make it their goal to kill Indians. He did not want that for the Cherokees. He wanted a peaceful transition for them.

The Cherokee Nation was divided into 13 groups, each of them more or less than a thousand. The first detachment was to leave September 1st and the last one was to depart by December 5th. The soldiers cleared one farm at a time. They approached a house, surround the house so no one could escape, then the Cherokee were ordered to leave the premises with no more than they could carry (Inskeep, 2015).

Rebecca Neugin was three years old when she was ordered to leave her family home with her eight siblings and her two parents. “When the soldier came to our house my father wanted to fight,” she said.

“but my mother told him that the soldiers would kill him if he did and we surrendered without a fight. They drove us out of our house to join other prisoners in a stockade. After they took us away, my mother begged them to let her go back an get some bedding. So, they let her go back and she brought what bedding and cooking utensils she could carry and had to leave behind all of our household possessions.” (Inskeep, 2015, pg. 323)

 

            The Cherokee were held in detention camps which according to reports sounded more favorable by people who did not have to stay in them. General Scott referred to some of the camps he was in charge of as well shaded and large, approximately 12 miles by four miles with a river border. He said the plots served as a sulking ground for unhappy Cherokee people. Scott did confess that the Cherokee people, who resided in these camps, did not have possession of their cooking utensils, clothes and other goods that would have made their lives easier. “Evan Jones, a missionary who lived with the Cherokees, described them as prisoners who had instantly been hurled from comfortable circumstances into abject poverty. Captain Webster, a Tennessee volunteer, was overcome with feeling of foreboding as his company guarded the prisoners. He wrote a letter to his wife to say there were seven or eight thousand Cherokees in various camps around his company, and they are the most quiet people you ever saw. The only consistent sound was that of preachers, white and Cherokee, who went among prisoners and soldiers alike trying to save souls. ‘Among these sublime mountains and in the dark forests with the thunder often sounding in the distance, the talk of God only made him wonder what would fall upon my guilty head as one of the instruments of oppression” (Inskeep, 2015, pg. 325-326). Their quietness can be equated to a time of surrender and loss of hope.

            In May 1838, the Cherokee forced march began accompanied by U.S. Army troops, along with various state militia and volunteers. History, written by the victors, made it difficult to come up with an exact number of how many Cherokees were evicted from their homelands. The count could be as high as 100,000 that suffered the tortuous conditions and as many as 30 percent of them lost their lives as a result of shootings, beatings, starvation, dysentery, whooping cough, cholera in the summer, and pneumonia in the winter along with exposure to harsh weather conditions. Some traveled by boat but most traveled on foot. Covered wagons carried supplies and some of the elders were permitted to ride on the wagons. However, when the terrain became rough, they would have to walk alongside. To escape slavery, some of the tribal members of the various tribes were black people who were adopted into the tribes. President was known to possess a hatred of all people of color. He considered them to be subhuman. The impact of the “Trail of Tears” was devastating from loss of lives to a loss of culture. The relocation was completed by the end of March in 1839. The Cherokee struggled to acclimate themselves into an unfamiliar land. (Coard, 2017).

           

 

Bear River Massacre

 

            The massacre of members of the Northwest Band of Shoshone Indians preceded many of the more infamous massacres such as the Sand Creek and Wounded Knee Massacres. It did not get the recognition it deserved as a devastating event for the Shoshone people.  The massacre occurred on January 29th, 1863 along the Bear River in what is now southern Idaho.  The Civil War was grabbing the headlines and most likely this matter received a paragraph at most in the biggest newspapers, if mentioned at all.  The circumstances leading up to the massacre were those which will become all too commonplace in the history of the Native Americans in the United States during the latter half of the nineteenth century.  In detailing the history and development of this massacre “facts” from both sides will be presented.  In the end as many as 400 tribal members lost their lives.

            The Shoshone were spread out in the area known as the Great Basin, the region was surrounded by the Wasatch Mountains to the east, the Sierra Nevada to the west, and the Snake River Plain to the north. The south rim was less distinct and not worth mentioning. The Great Basin included most of Nevada, half of Utah, and sections of Idaho, Wyoming, Oregon, and California.  Cultural similarities existed between the different bands that spread over the territory but differences in life styles were also present. The Eastern Shoshone led by Chief Washakie relied extensively on the use of horses which enabled them to travel to the Wyoming territory and hunt buffalo more so than other Shoshone bands.  Bands living near certain rivers utilized fish more widely in their diet.  Those living in the area north of the Great Salt Lake had access to wide-ranging grassy plains; these grasses yielded large amounts of seeds which were harvested and utilized in the diet providing an important food staple during the winter months.  Other important food items included berries, roots and small game.  The Great Basin was also the location where the California Trail passed through with a branch of the Oregon Trail breaking away a short distance from present day Salt Lake City.

            Shoshone exposure to white emigrants increased in the 1840’s as traffic on the California and Oregon Trails amplified with the degree of contact related to distance a particular band lived from the trail.  Most of the traffic was just passing by.  Eventually trading posts were built and  there was limited trade with fur trappers/fur traders prior to expansion in California.  Initially, the interaction between whites and Indians was friendly.  Eventually emigrants headed west to California and started to settle in the area. In some circumstance’s migration expanded eastward from California as gold in California became scarcer and new gold mines opened in the Great Basin area.

            In 1847 a large group of Mormons settled in Utah.  This group was led by Brigham Young from Illinois.  They wanted to escape persecution by settling in the Mexican Territory.  Unfortunately, Mexico lost this territory shortly after settlement and the Mormons were once again in an area under United States government control.  Additional Mormon emigrants continued to settle in the Utah Territory and with this, pressure was put on resources utilized by the Shoshone.  Heber C. Kimball, a church leader believed in Mormon “Manifest Destiny” and was known to have said “We won’t pay for land.  Land belongs to Our Father in Heaven.  We expect to plow it and plant it” (Madsen, 1985).  As early as 1849 Brigham Young sent men to chastise the Indians who were stealing and killing cattle although this was supposed to conflict with his beliefs as outlined in the Book of Mormon (Madsen, 1985).  Over the course of the next 10 to 15 years Young would rather feed the Indians than take punitive action.  As the best regions for farming were exploited by white settlers, Indians became more reliant on being fed by the church community which drained food stores and made the farmers angrier and more aggressive.  Starvation was the norm for many Indians.  Starvation and resentment on the part of the Shoshone only enhanced their desperation leading to further theft of crops and cattle by some of the Shoshone as they were in survival mode.  In addition to starvation, the natives were also plagued by diseases such as cholera, measles and small pox.

            Patrick E. Connor was born in 1820 and immigrated to the United States at the age of 12 from Ireland.  He initially joined the army at the age of 18 and often returned to service when not focusing on entrepreneurial interest.  When the Civil War began, he joined the Union Army while living in California and was made a Colonel in charge of the 3rd California infantry.  Their orders were to protect the mail routes and telegraph lines in the western territory.  He eventually made his way to Salt Lake City in the Utah Territory where he ordered his men to build Fort Douglas.  Serving in this capacity left Connor and his men dismayed as they would have preferred to be fighting traitors in the east.  Plans were made to confront the group of Indians who resided at Bear to qualm the fears and concerns of the white settlers.

 

            The following is a synopsis of Colonel Patrick E. Connor’s official report paraphrasing his account of what happened on January 29th, 1863 at Bear River.

            Word was received the Indians responsible for the recent attack on miners, massacre of emigrants during the past summer and generally wreaking havoc on the mail system. They were settled for the winter to the north approximately 140 miles or so away in the area called Bear River. Connor notified the district marshal of his intent to arrest Chiefs Bear Hunter, Sagwich and San Pitch at this location but had no intent on taking prisoners.  He was welcome to accompany his regiment if the marshal wished.

            They left Fort Douglas 4 days prior to the event with 220 California volunteers.  The group was divided into one larger and one smaller group; the smaller group was to lead so if detected, would be perceived as less threatening.  Men were mounted on horses and had several small cannons in tow.  Conditions were harsh and temperatures bitter but the men focused on the mission and no complaints were to be heard.  The regiment set camp the night before the encounter approximately 10 miles from the Indian encampment.  The plan called for the small group to depart around 2:00 in the morning with the larger group to follow an hour later, to engage the Indians at sunrise.

            The men were ordered to surround the camp and attack.  Battle ensued as the Indians awoke and vacated their lodges.  Claims were made by some of the men that the Indians were waving the scalps of white women trying to antagonize the soldiers.  They had the upper hand initially so the troops were required to change tactics.  At this point some of the Indians started to flee and we were able to shoot them while they were swimming in the icy water.  The battle lasted for almost 4 hours, until 10:00 in the morning.  The men experienced further suffering due the cold, wet conditions but still didn’t complain.

            His best estimate was they were up against 300 heavily armed warriors with ample amounts of ammunition.  In the end, he believed they killed 224 including Chiefs Bear Hunter, Sagwich and Leight.  Connor was unable to make an accurate count because of the need to get his wounded men to more hospitable conditions. He was sure some of them would have mobility issues the rest of their lives due to frostbite.  They left the remaining 160 or so women and children with a small amount of provisions (Connor, 1863). 

     Shoshone Oral Historian - Mae Timbimboo’s Version of the Bear River Massacre

            The land along the Bear River was a desirable location to spend the winter as it was centrally located in the Shoshone territory and it had a natural depression, willows and other vegetation which provided natural protection from the wind or storms.  It also had natural hot springs which served as a water source during the cold conditions.  Early in January 1863 a gathering of thousands of Shoshone people met to participate in the Warm Dance, a common occurrence to give thanks and appeal to the Creator for warmer conditions.  Games, winter sports and other methods of having fun occurred.  At its conclusion many of the visiting guest departed. 

            The arrival of the soldiers was expected by the Indian people. Tin Dup had a dream on January 27, 1863 which predicted the tragedy. He shared his dream and as a result left the following day with close to 40 tribal members. It is also said that Chief Sagwich was warned by an acquaintance that settlers in the area were working with Colonel Conner to fix things once and for all.  Sagwich was aware of the problems being caused by a small group of Indians.  The stories told in the native history specifically name those responsible, Indians whom were not a part of the Northwest band and were not present at Bear River (Parry, 2019).

            On the morning of January 29, 1863 Chief Sagwich arose early as he usually did.  He exited his lodge and observed an approaching haze. He knew the steam was rising off the horses and soldiers.  He called for all those sleeping to wake up and gather their weapons. They grabbed what was available; bow and arrow, tomahawks and a few rifles.  Sagwich gave orders not to shoot first hoping Conner would ask for those responsible to be turned over. This did not happen.  The soldiers attacked without notification of their intentions shooting all; men, women, children and babies.  Indians tried to escape by jumping in the river and heading for cover.  Some hid under the river bank in hopes of staying safe.  The story noted that one woman hiding under the bank was forced to kill her crying baby so as not to give away their location.  The snow was covered in blood.  Chief Bear Hunter suffered the most, perhaps of any Native American of all time. He was shot, kicked, tortured and finally finished by a glowing hot bayonet driven from ear to ear.  He never cried out.  Chief Sagwich managed to escape, contrary to Colonel Connor’s report on events.  Word of the massacre prompted the church to send 3 men from Franklin, a nearby town, to evaluate the site.  By their count and report, 400 Indians were dead.  It is thought that perhaps Conner’s count was only of men?  If accurate, this massacre would be the largest to have ever occurred in the United States.

            Colonel Conner went on to be promoted and was regarded as a hero. In ensuing years  Connor’s instructions to his troops regarding encounters with Indians was to “kill every Indian over 12 years old” (Parry, 2019).

 

            The Bear River Massacre wasn’t the first tragedy to strike the Indians of this country and certainly wasn’t to be the last.  The massacre served as an example of recurring events that Native Americans were subjected to by the Euro-Americans.  Commonly Native Americans were asked to give up their resources, usually made ill by disease, eventually blamed for taking a stand, forced to move and then the cycle repeats.  The belief in Manifest Destiny in this situation even crossed religious/moral obligations as the Mormon colonists disregarded their “values” to attain their objective.  The Shoshone, who survived the massacre dispersed to find places where they could begin again. Many of the Shoshone people such as Chief Sagwich joined the Church of Latter-Day Saints.  For the most part this didn’t enhance the quality of life for those who agreed to assimilate and often they were once again forced from their land.