“Civilization has been thrust upon me… and
it has not added one whit to my love for truth,
honesty, and generosity…”
-Chief
Luther Standing Bear
Oglala Sioux
By 1880, the most powerful and hostile Native Americans
were thrown into complete helplessness at the mercy of the government and
confined to reservations. A hunter and gatherer society had their demise
declared. The passage of the Indian Appropriations Act of 1851 authorized the
establishment of reservations in the U.S. An Indian Reservation was a piece of
land that Native Americans could reside on and the premise of the reservation
policy was supposed to be temporary. They would only have to rely on government
support for a short time. They were expected to pick up a hoe and farm to
provide for their communities. However, reservations were inclined to be on
land that whites did not want and it was impossible to grow anything. Even
though the soil tended to not be suitable to agriculture, the laziness of the
Indian people was blamed for their inability to farm. The white agents believed their mission
involved the complete transformation of the Indian way of life without
consideration or appreciation of traditional native cultures. Tribal religious
practices and beliefs, considered as superstition, forced white agents to
convert Indians to Christianity. Tribal people’s lives, altered significantly,
changed a nomadic people to one of submission (Thernstrom, 1989).
“Since
its creation, the U.S. government had forced Indians to cede entire tribal
territories in exchanged for treaty-based guarantees, of personal safety,
sovereignty, and rights to water and other resources on small, reserved tracts
of land. As the so-called frontier opened up to settlers, the government
negotiated more treaties with Indians…” (Green, 1992, pg. 53).
“Since
1492, European military traditions have twisted around and through American
Indian lives like a corkscrew. Tribes not only fought traditional enemies but
also every imperial power that arrived on the North American shores. And every
imperial power eventually sought Native American allies in their struggle to
wrest the land from its indigenous owners. Native confederacies were formed to
fight the European interlopers and their tribal allies. Many of these
confederacies were formed primarily for military purposes. The long conflict
with the Europeans turned several tribes into virtual military states, always
under the threat of attack and annihilation. When many of the tribal nations
came onto the reservations, they lived under what amounted to as martial law”
(Holm, 1996, pg. 22). As a result of
this unyielding rule and constant conflict, the Indian people ended up feeling
exhausted and lived in a continuous state of unrest.
The Indian Removal Act signed on May 28, 1830 by
President Jackson paved the way for the removal of Native Americans from their
homelands and placement on land west of the Mississippi River. The land west of
the Mississippi was given to them in exchange for the homelands they had given
up from the eastern portion of the country. The government picked up the cost
of relocation and resettlement. Jackson argued that the act was the best option
since the white settlers had the desire to reside on the Indians’ homelands. Land,
not being farmed, was considered open for takeover (History.comEditors, 2019).
To
enhance assimilation efforts in 1887, the General Allotment Act, also referred
to as the Dawes Act, was passed by Congress. It was determined by U.S.
government officials to separate Native American people and place individual
families on small tracts of land. Natives Americans were considered to be too
incompetent to handle their own affairs. The small plots of land were held in
trust for 25 years. The Indian people could not sell or lease the land without
the government’s permission. Corrupt federal officials sold and leased the land
to non-Indian people at bargain prices, which amounted to millions of acres of
prime land. The land was withheld from tribal people and some of the lands were
still held in trust for over 100 years (Green, 1992). The act failed miserably
because of federal corruption so reservations became the only viable solution
in the effort to solve the “Indian problem.”
Having an area in which a number of people were forced to
live, mostly due to their lower social economic status and racial ethnicity,
can lead to an underclass mentality. This mentality was drawn from
self-fulfilling prophesies associated with negative stereotypes, such as
“drunken Indians” (New World Encyclopedia, 2018). Reservations had become war
zones filled with domestic violence, substance abuse, child abuse and child
neglect, which had served as constant reminders of the unresolved issues from
the past.
“A people without
knowledge of their past history, origin, and culture is like a
tree without roots,”
Unknown Author.
While
in the twenty-first century reservation travel was unrestricted, at the time of
establishment Native Americans were not allowed to travel outside the
reservation boundaries. Many tribes were nomadic and they lost their means of
survival by being constricted to a confined area. Hunting and fishing were not
always adequate options for providing food for the tribal communities on
reservations. The game and fish in many of these locations was often scarce.
Indian people, who farmed, often found themselves on land that was unsuitable
for agriculture. The land was oftentimes arid, rocky and/or sandy. As a result,
the people living on the reservations had to rely on the government for food.
Housing
on the reservations was substandard until the Department of Housing and Urban
Development began providing funding for the building of the housing units.
Associated to the funding were standards to which the homes were to be built
including quality windows, roofing, insulation and other requirements. These
homes were provided to the Indian families on a sliding fee scale: the lower a
family’s income, the lower the cost of rent.
“There are 539,616 AI/AN individuals living on a
reservation or off-reservation trust land who self-identified as being
affiliated with at least one federally recognized tribe.
“Reservations and off-reservation trust lands with the
highest percentage of these individuals –
1.
Navajo Nation Reservation and
off-reservation trust land, Arizona-New Mexico-Utah (30.48% or 164,473
individuals)
2.
Pine Ridge Reservation, South Dakota
(3.09% or 16,471 individuals)
3.
For Apache Reservation, Arizona (2.46% or
13,260 individuals)
4.
Gila River Reservation, Arizona (2.16% or
11, 672 individuals)” (US Census Bureau, 2010).
Approximately three hundred Indian Reservations
were located in various locations in the United States. Not every state in the
U.S. has had an Indian reservation, and not every Indian tribe was assigned a
reservation. The end results of the reservation legislation were catastrophic
(History.com Editors, 2019). Approximately 22% of 5.2 million Native Americans,
who live in the United States, live on reservations and off-reservation trust
lands (US Census Bureau, 2010). Living conditions on some of the reservations
resemble Third World Countries. Many factors have contributed to the challenges
faced by Native Americans today including health, economics, and housing
problems.
“Alcoholism
remains a severe health risk for people on the reservations, but the perceived
stereotype that all Natives are alcoholics has likewise created damage for
Natives socially, economically, and emotionally. In fact, ‘stereotypes held by
Euro-Americans of the Indigenous peoples were persistently condescending and
dismissive at best’ which has created numerous persistently condescending and
dismissive at best’ which has created numerous barriers in the mainstream job
market. Unfortunately, this stereotype has existed since the colonists
presented alcohol to the Indians of the Americas” (Ponstein, N.D.,para. 9). A
strong correlation exists between the socioeconomic conditions and historical
trauma and use and abuse of alcohol for Native Americans.
“…it is far more likely that the socioeconomic conditions
and historical trauma play a direct correlation to the use and abuse of alcohol
for Native people. To further understand the complexities of the historical
loss, research by Dr. Maria Yellow Horse Brave Heart provides ample connection
between loss, trauma, and substance abuse as a tactic to numb this pain,” (Ponstein,
N.D., para. 13).
When
the Europeans first came to this country, money was a foreign concept for the
Native Americans. Many tribal people
still have difficulty managing their money. Poverty has been commonplace in the
past and still continued to be a problem for many Indian people today. The Pine
Ridge reservation, for example, was noted by President Clinton as resembling a
third-world country. Indian people who received a windfall would often
overspend as a result of going without for so long. A multitude of Native
Americans do not possess budgeting skills and fall behind on their bills.
The job market and educational opportunities were usually
scarce due to the rural locations of many of the reservations. Usually, Tribal
and Federal governments were the largest employers on and near reservations.
However, many households have been overcrowded and the typical source of income
has been social security, disability insurance or veterans’ income. From four
to eight out of ten have been unemployed. Many of the Native Americans, who
happened to be employed, earn below poverty wages. The percentage of Native
Americans living below the poverty line was 28.2%, while Native Americans who
live in poverty on reservations range from 38% to 63%. Oftentimes, head of
households need to leave the reservation to seek employment and grandparents
end up raising their grandchildren (Partnership with Native Americans, 2015).
In
order to pursue a degree from a college or university, tribal members usually
have to travel to another community. Transportation was another issue. Without
adequate transportation it is difficult for these individuals to seek
advancement of any kind.
A
housing crisis exists in many Indian country locations. The Indian Housing
Authority has made an effort to counteract the problem, however, the need for
sufficient housing on reservations remains to be a serious issue. It was
reported that there were 90,000 homeless or underhoused Indian families and 30%
of Indian housing was overcrowded. Less
than 50% was connected to a public sewage system. Approximately 40% of their
housing was considered substandard. The waiting lists for tribal housing was
usually long with up to three or more years to wait for housing. Overcrowding
has been a serious problem. Most family members will not turn away other family
members if they need a place to live.
At
the Crow Creek Reservation in South Dakota, there are approximately 2500
residents on this reservation and 220 available homes which means each home
houses 12+ people with families doubling and tripling up in order to have
housing. “Living in a multigenerational home can be a blessing to some, but to
others and even at the same time, it can be suffocating to say the least. It
often causes familial problems because different generations can bring
different rules and expectations of cleanliness, etc… As a result of the lack
of housing, many people lack the privacy and space a family needs in order to
thrive” (Ponstein, 2020, para. 20).
“Reservations
began as prisoner of war camps. Life on these reservations was dismal and
destructive for the people and their way of life. Foundational needs were not
met… Indians on the reservations suffered from poverty, malnutrition, and very
low standards of living and rates of economic development” (Ponstein, 2020,
para. 21). Refer to Appendix One for a complete list of statistics covering
health, transportation, education, depression, suicide, alcohol and substance
abuse for today’s Native Americans.
The
purpose of reservations was to establish tracts of land where Native Americans
could live while white settlers took their homelands. One of the main goals of
reservations was to place Native Americans under governmental control and to
minimize conflict between other tribes and white settlers. The Native Americans
were to take on the ways of the white man. However, many Native Americans, who
were forced onto reservations or ended up on reservations due to a lack of
choices, ended up with devastating, long-lasting effects such as alcoholism and
poverty (History.com Editors, 2019).
