Traditional Period and Cultural Practices of the Annishaanabeg (Original people)

Traditional Period and Cultural Practices for the Anishaanabeg

Prophesies and Migration

            The Anishanaabeg have a history dating back 50,000 plus years on the continent known as North America, also referred to as Turtle Island.   Before the 1300s, the Ojibwe resided in the St. Lawrence River Valley area now known as Newfoundland. The future of the Anishanaabeg was foretold by the prophets of the Seven Fires. The vision included a move westward, or the Anishanaabeg would perish.  Some of the native people scoffed at these predictions, and others believed these words to be true.

            The seven prophets predicted a time during the Fourth Fire, when men with pale faces would visit their villages.  If they came in peace offering gifts, life would be wonderful. The white people and the Anishanaabeg would share resources, knowledge, and build stronger communities.  If the white people came with fire power and/or death faces, the Anishanaabeg will confront a doomed future.  The death face and the brotherhood face may appear to be very similar.  The Anishanaabeg were warned the brotherhood face could feign one of suffering; however, in reality these visitors’ hearts may be filled with greed for the riches of the land in which the Anishanaabeg were residing.     

            The Fifth Fire would be a time of great struggle for the Indian people and result in a vast depletion of their population. The Sixth Fire represented a time when the children were taken away from their homes and taught to adapt the practices of a different culture. The Fifth and Six Fires depended on what the white people did during the time of the Fourth Fire.

            During the Seventh Fire, new people will emerge. These people will retrace their steps. These steps will take them back to the elders.  Some of the elders will be silent out of fear. Many elders have fallen asleep and will awaken with nothing to offer and only a few may be available to guide other Anishanaabeg on their journeys.  It was prophesized that if the white people chose the right road, the Eighth and final fire will be lit, which represents peace, love, and unity amongst all.  If the white people make the wrong choice, then the destruction, which the Europeans brought with them when they came to this country, will cause much suffering and death to all of Earth’s people.[i] The Eight Fire may also represent a time of revelation when things, good and bad, will be revealed to all. Today, many Indian people believe the time of the eighth fire is quickly approaching.

            Because of these prophecies, some of the people migrated northwest to the Quebec area. Others continued their migration to the west to the land where food grows on the water (wild rice), known today as Minnesota, or the Bahweting area, known as Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan. They fished, trapped and later were in the lumber business.

The Lenni Lenape were considered the original people and later were referred to as the Anishanaabeg. The Lenni Lenape were known as the Grandfathers, from whom many tribal nations such as the Ojibwe were derived.  The migration has connected the Ojibwe to many other tribes such as the Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Cree, Shawnee, Miami, Passamaquaddy, Penobscot, and Wampanoag.  During a more recent migration westward, the Ojibwe traveled with descendents of the Odawa and Potwatomi tribes and settled in Michigan.[ii] These three tribes were referred to as the Three Fires.  Each tribe worked together to provide for the needs of all. They utilized similar dialects of the Algonquian language as a mode of communicating with one another. The joint cooperation of the Three Fires Confederacy ensured protection and control over the Three Fires’ territorial claims from other tribes. Today, these tribes are still referred to as the Three Fires. However, they function as separate entities lacking the unity that existed in the past.

Tribal Leadership

The Indian people had a form of leadership in place in which respect for all tribal members occurred naturally. The Ojibwe tribes as well as other tribal communities were made up of clan systems that served as a form of leadership. Seven original clans existed for the Ojibwe people.  These have been, but are not limited to, the Crane, Loon, Fish, Bear, Marten, Deer, and Bird.[iii]  Clan members believe they have a special relationship with the clan animal. This relationship delineated the specific role each member of certain clans possessed in consideration to tribal leadership. The clan system is still utilized today to varying degrees with various tribes.

            All members of the same clan, blood relatives or not, were considered brothers and sisters.  Members of the same clan could not marry. The clan and kinship networks created a blanket of security for the villagers, and created a strong commitment to giving and sharing that was endemic of the tribal culture. The Anishanaabeg lived in areas abundant with wild game, fish, and edible plant life such as berries, acorns, and fruit. The tribal people did not take this abundance for granted. 

            The abundance of food afforded the Anishanaabeg time to participate in various ceremonies.  The villagers danced, sang, played games, and built the tools they needed for food gathering, farming and other necessities.  They had an optimistic view about life in general and continually planned for their future. Cooperation was involved in providing sustenance for the village as a whole, and all able villagers worked diligently to provide for the well-being of the community. 

Language

            The origins of the Ojibwe language were associated with the Algonquian or Algonkin language groups. The language was derived originally from the Lenape people who defined the linguistic connection to those who were considered close relatives such as the Mohican, Nanticokes, Shawnee, Cheyee, Penobscots, Passamaquaddy, Wapanoag, Odawa, Potawatomi, Mesquakie and others.[iv]  Language is a descriptive mode of communication for various cultures.  One word can have multiple meanings.  For example, the word bakade meaning black or blackened in the Ojibwe language can have a deeper meaning.  The Anishanaabeg blackened their faces before they entered the woods on a vision quest to enhance their spiritual connections. Knowledge of the language is paramount to understanding the meaning of stories, prayers, and songs.  Language and culture are intertwined.

            Public speaking was practiced and perfected by many of the Anishanaabeg.  The Ojibwe language explains human emotions and actions as well as natural phenomena. The speaker recalled events by using language to instill detailed images.  The Anishanaabeg were good listeners also.  It was considered a form of respect to listen intently to those who were speaking.  Children were strongly encouraged to listen. They would be responsible for passing down the traditional information to their children and grandchildren. Children were taught to speak well and portray the exact meanings of what they wanted to relay to others. The stories and legends provided entertainment along with the teaching of valuable lessons and a way of providing historical information.

            Stories passed down from the ancestors were laced with moral teachings such as not being greedy, the necessity of giving to others, and being kind and respectful. The teachings were often indirect, so the listener had to pay attention fully in order to develop an understanding of the message being conveyed. The Anishnanaabeg relied on oral tradition to teach many important lessons. The telling of stories was a way of relaying historical and cultural information in a tried and true method that has continued to be practiced today in many tribal settings.   

Child Rearing Practices

            Childbirth was celebrated with feasting.  The child and mother were inseparable for the first year of the child’s life. During the traditional period, the educational process occurred in three phases.  In phase one, a child would be strapped onto a cradle board, referred to as a dikinagan, for most of the child’s first two years to learn the life skills of observation and listening.  They watched the adults in the village work and learned about the habits of people and animals. Their observation skills were enhanced as they matured from infant to a young child.  Surrounded by nature, they observed and listened to the communication between animals and people. The art of listening was fostered further through seeking wisdom on their search to learn the deeper meaning of things.  Today, listening and observation skills are still held in high regard with many Indian people.

The second phase began at approximately age seven. From one year of age until adulthood, girls were cared for and nurtured by their mothers, grandmothers, and aunts.   All female adults in the village, other than their mothers, were considered aunts, and all these caregivers provided training to prepare them for adulthood. They received training on how to raise crops, to gather plants and berries for food, and to provide other necessities for the home. Another lesson involved how to make nets for fishing.  The making of fishing nets consisted of gathering basswood or nettle cord, learning how to dry these materials, separating the fibers by wetting them and drawing the fibers through their mouths, how to roll the fibers, and how to tie the netting fiber in different patterns to enable the fisherman to catch different kinds of fish. 

Young women were trained on how to tan animal hides, which included the removal of flesh, washing off the blood stains, soaking the hide, scraping off the fur, soaking the hide in deer brains, scraping the hide again, and then stretching the hide on a wooden frame. Tribal women also needed to learn how to use the bow and arrow so they could provide protection for the children and themselves when the men were away on hunting expeditions.  Many tribal women were proficient in hunting and fishing.

            At the age of seven, fathers, uncles, and older male cousins provided boys with lessons on hunting and fishing.  Concerning the construction of canoes, boys were taught how to remove bark from birch trees and how to shape the wood for flooring and gunwales.  They were given instruction about how to gather and combine spruce resin with grease and black powder of cedar to coat the canoe as an adhesive and sealant.  Another important lesson involved learning how to make bows and arrows used in hunting. When the young male had his first successful kill, the whole village celebrated. The kill was served as the main part of the feast.

            The third phase of the educational process consisted of the search for wisdom.  The search extended into late adulthood.  This involved a quest to know the entire story of things, events and happenings from the simplest to the most complex, through the many layers of meaning; learning the whole of things.[v]

            The elders, adult males and females provided teachings to prepare the youth for their path in life.  It was important to learn how to live in a gentle way with humbleness and respect accomplished through prayer, fasting, and listening to everything. The beliefs associated with the path of life included the following:

·         Honor Gitchi Manito (The Creator).

·         Honor elders.

·         Honor our elder brothers (all animals are considered to be elder brothers because they were here before humans, and they are relied on for teachings, as well as for sustenance).

·         Honor women.

·         Keep promises and uphold pledges.

·         Show kindness to everyone.

·         Be peaceful in body and spirit.

·         Be courageous.

·         Be moderate in dreams, thoughts, words and deeds.[vi]

            Children were disciplined in many ways.  They were ignored if they were tale bearing, and scolded if caught lying.  When children quarreled with their peers, they would not be permitted to play with those children.  Stealing usually resulted in the child returning the stolen object to the person it was stolen from.  Older children often received spankings for stealing.  Sometimes fear was used, but not to the extent that it was harmful to the children.  Instilling fear about certain things was often a safety measure.  For example, to prevent children from playing on a hill that was considered dangerous, the parents would put a scarecrow at the top of the hill to scare them, and the children never went back to the hill again.[vii]

Boys and girls could play together when they were younger, but as they matured, it was not allowed. The children would copy the adults doing various chores, such as housekeeping, caring for dolls, hunting, fishing, and dancing to prepare them for adulthood.  All age groups participated in a variety of games of chance and games involving dexterity, such as lacrosse.  The use of games served as a part of the learning process.

            The purpose of traditional Ojibwe educational practices was to prepare the young people to provide for the needs of the community.  Children were also taught how to develop a meaningful relationship with the Great Mystery. These teachings were part of the balance of their life journeys and beyond into eternity.  If one only learned about life skills without the benefit of obtaining knowledge about the spirit, it was believed this individual would live a life without purpose or any significant meaning. The entire village provided care, supervision, and instruction to the children.  Essentially, all adults were responsible for the security and protection of all the children in the village.  Also of equal importance in the learning process was the exploration of everyone’s roots.

Creation Story

            The Anishanaabeg, like other cultures, had a creation story that was continually recited to provide lessons for all tribal people.  In the beginning, Gitchi Manito created the universe as we know it today. He created Grandfather Sun and Grandmother Moon, Mother Earth and Father Sky. On the earth, he created all things, living and nonliving. He created life on the earth, in the sky, and in the water. He created the plants, rivers, four-legged and winged creatures, and the swimmers. After this was done, he created one of the greatest mysteries of all, the four seasons, to bring harmony and balance to all.
            After all creation of animate and inanimate entities was completed, then the Creator made man. After he created the first Anishanaabe, the Creator instructed him in a dream to name all things in the language given to him, Anishinaabemowin. So the first man went about his journey and named all things he saw, the animals, insects, birds and fish. He told Gitchi Manito in a dream he finished what was requested of him. Then the Creator gave the first man his name, which was Nanaboozho. Whenever the Anishanaabeg meet and greet one another, they say a part of his name, Boozhoo, meaning hello.
            The creation story tells how the Anishanaabeg originally migrated to the Great Lakes region from the East Coast. The Anishanaabeg resided peacefully until the villagers became restless and unsettled.  Selfishness and competitiveness took over the lives of these inhabitants. The Anishanaabeg were at war with one another and they were not on the red road.  Hatred and other forms of dysfunction ran rampant through the entire Anishanaabeg nation.  The creator looked down at these settlements and decided to cleanse the earth with water to renew the earth, its inhabitants and begin anew. Many creation stories contain a flood as a part of the cleansing process.

            After this cleansing, Nanaboozho found refuge on a log with many animals. All of these animals tried to swim to the bottom to retrieve a piece of dirt to rebuild a land base. Many of them tried and failed. Then, the smallest, weakest of the four leggeds was able to accomplish what the other animals could not.  That animal was the muskrat. However, the muskrat gave its life to bring up the dirt, which saved all the other animals and Nanaboozoo. The muskrat’s lifeless body floated to the top of the water with the dirt clenched within his little hand. Nanaboozoo placed this dirt on the turtle’s back and created the land, which today is referred to as Turtle Island.[viii]  The telling of creation stories has carried significance throughout the history of the Anishanaabeg.

Spiritual Practices

            The most important event in an Indian child’s life was, and continues to be with many tribal entities, the receipt of personal identity through a naming ceremony.  The given name permitted the child to have a place by the tribal fire and be a part of the tribal thoughts and discussions. The name was a gift from the spirits, inherited through a naming ceremony by the person bestowing the name, usually soon after the child’s birth.  The given name was to be respected for its origin within the tribe and cherished by the one receiving it.  The children’s names would come to the leaders and other adults in the village through dreams and visions.  Sometimes children would receive the name of a namesake who passed on.  Two people in the same village could not have the same name simultaneously.[ix]

            Dreams were considered significant, so children were taught at an early age how to take notice of them.  By examining their dreams closely, predictions of good and bad events and other necessary information could be derived. While they were still innocent, they were encouraged to walk alone in the woods to commune with their spirit guides.  Their faces were blackened with coal before they ventured on this journey.  Fasting also occurred during the time the young men and women were coming of age to assist with seeking direction for their adult years.

Ceremonies were held to celebrate various stages in the lives of the villagers.

Ghost suppers were held to honor those who passed on. The ghost supper has been a traditional fall ceremony of Anishanaabeg people throughout history. The time when  leaves are falling on the ground was considered a time for remembering and honoring those who walked on. The ghost supper has been held in many different ways.  One common denominator includes the serving of the favorite foods of the ones who are being remembered.  Usually a place is set at the table for the one(s) who passed on.  The plate was fixed with a variety of the loved one’s favorite foods and left for the entire evening. 

            Ancestry has been paramount for Anishanaabeg people.  Ghost suppers served as an avenue for family stories and fond memories of the deceased.  Families would visit another home and eat the food they prepared. Then that family would be invited to their home and so on.  This fostered community awareness, and encouraged community trust and sharing. 

The sweat lodge ceremony was another way Indian people united for a common purpose, which was to commune with the Creator and other spirit guides. Other tribal entities may conduct sweat lodge activities in a different manner. The sweat lodge ceremony served as a vehicle to give thanks, and pray to Gitchi Manito and the attendees’ spirit guides.  These ceremonies continue to be held today. 

The lodge is constructed in a dome shape and made from bent poles and covered with animal hides.  Today, tarps are often used.  The door is located on the east side of the lodge.  The east represents new beginnings and is where the sun rises.  Attendees are instructed to enter the lodge in the eastern door and circle around clockwise until they are sitting next to the person who entered before them. Minimal clothing is appropriate to permit the spirit guides to roam freely within a person’s psyche and body. Jewelry is not permitted because it may distract the spirits. 

            The leader of the lodge gives direction on how each person is to enter the lodge and what order they will be sitting in the lodge.  The leader instructs the fire tender to bring in the grandfathers, which are the hot rocks that have been heated by the sacred fire. The gathering of these special stones is a ritual in itself.  Only the leaders of the sweat lodge can gather the rocks. 

            The tender of the fire distributes one rock or a few rocks at a time and the attendee(s) may greet the grandfather by saying “Boozhoo Mishomis.”  Sometimes the leader is the only one who says the greeting to the grandfathers as they are passed into the lodge. The leader sprinkles water on the rocks and then caresses the rocks with sweet grass. After the rocks are brought into the lodge, the door is closed. Songs are sung with the beating of a drum to call in the spirits.

            Each person is given a chance to speak after the songs are sung. Each speaker introduces themselves after saying Boozhoo Gitchi Manito, which is saying a formal hello to the Creator. The introduction includes the persons name and totem (dodem) in the native language.  Prayers for themselves or others in need would be said last.  It is important to give thanks first to show appreciation for all the Creator has provided. Some of the things attendees would be thankful for are the four leggeds, the air, water, and food the Creator has provided for all of his people.

            The ceremony can last up to four rounds.  A round consists of each person having an opportunity to speak.  The door is opened after each round.  The attendees often drink cedar water.  A private discussion may be held before and after this ceremony with the sweat lodge leader to explore answers to some of the questions an attendee may have.  After the ceremony, a small feast is usually held and everyone partakes in comfortable banter with one another. Prior to eating, a small plate of food is prepared and offered to the Creator at the fire.  The description of the sweat lodge ceremony is based on the author’s personal experience. Other tribal entities may conduct sweat lodge activities in a different manner. These ceremonies continue to be held today. 

            Pow Wows are also considered spiritual events and continue to be held throughout most of North America.  They are a way in which the Anishanaabeg socialize and celebrate their heritage. The term “ pow wow” comes from the Algonquian derivative of “Pauau”.  It originally meant curing ceremony. Pow wows signify a time in which Anishanaabeg could sing, dance, feast and give gifts. 

The main emphasis of this spiritual practice continues to be with the powers of nature, which are Father Sun, Mother Earth, mountains, rivers, clouds and animals.  The traditional female and male dancers celebrate Mother Earth’s gifts.  Different forms of dancing are used to elicit rain for crops, preparation for hunting, food gathering, healing, and warfare as well as a way of extending respect and giving thanks.  Many of these dances are handed down from generation to generation. 

Another form of dancing is referred to as the jingle bell dancing. These dancers ward off illness and disease.  The young woman or girl has a dream and is given instruction to become a jingle dress dancer during that dream. Today the bells for the dancer’s regalia are made from the tops of chewing tobacco containers. There are teachings to be learned prior to wearing the dress.  Teachings involve the physical, spiritual, emotional and mental balance needed to walk a good road or the red road. 

The Four Sacred Plants

The four sacred plants are used in many of the spiritual ceremonies. Four sacred medicines provide balance, protection and cures for the Anishanaabeg and other cultures throughout history. The four sacred plants are tobacco, sage, sweet grass and cedar. The plants carry much significance, such as their representation of the four directions and the four stages in one’s life. The four sacred plants have been used throughout history in spiritual and healing practices.  Other herbs and spices are also used under the direction of a medicine man and other spiritual healers. 

Tobacco (Samah) represents the Eastern direction, which is symbolized by the color yellow.  It is used to establish a relationship between the energies of the universe, primarily the Creator. Tobacco has been used in offerings to the Creator as a medium of communication. Tobacco was offered to the Great Mystery when an animal or plant gave of itself.  It can be placed on the earth after asking the higher powers to provide guidance. Tobacco holds vast importance with creating a bond between earthly and spiritual realms. Elders have given instruction to hold the tobacco in the left hand so it is closer to the heart.  Tobacco is provided to medicine men and other spiritual leaders before they provide spiritual services.  These services include the seeking of spiritual guidance, sweat lodge ceremonies, and spiritual and physical healing.

            Cedar (Keezhik) represents the southern direction, which is symbolized by the color red. Cedar serves as a purifier.           It is burned while praying to the Great Mystery during meditation.  Many traditional women keep it in their left pocket.  A person will have the stamina and courage to survive if times are difficult when the aroma of cedar is breathed in. Cedar is burned to bless and clean a house before moving into the home. The smoke has cleansing powers.  Smudging occurs while the herb is being burned. Cedar is also boiled in water and served as a tea for healing purposes. Elders have given instruction to place cedar in shoes; then only goodness will come their way. 

            Sage is also considered to have cleansing and other spiritual properties.  Sage (Sukodawabuk) represents the western direction, and is depicted by the color black. Native Americans have used sage in smudging for the release of unclear thoughts and the cleansing of their homes of bad spirits and negative energy.  Smudging involves the burning of sage and the smoke is used for healing and cleansing purposes. Individuals using these herbs must have clear and admirable intentions. The root of the sage plant was used for healing by the Ojibwe in the following three ways: as an anti-convulsive, on wounds to stop bleeding, and as a stimulant.  The Potawatomi used it as a poultice for sores persisting for long periods of time.  It serves as a purifier and provides a signal to the Great Mystery of one’s need for help. 

 Sweet grass (Weengush) has also provided many healing and spiritual properties for those who use it, and represents the northern direction and the color white. It is also used for purification.  Sweet grass symbolizes the hair of Nokomis Akin (Grandmother Earth).  When sweet grass is braided, the three sections of the braid characterize mind, body and spirit.  The smoke from burning sweet grass is known to be repugnant to all evil beings and deters their powers. It is tied with many sacred and cultural objects and events.  When used as a smudge, the individual is to fan the sweet grass smoke first in front of the heart, second to the mind and third around their body and lastly return the smoke to the head.  For example, the men’s traditional grass dance regalia are symbolic of this sacred plant.  A braid of sweet grass is tied to the dancer’s belt.  The colorful yarn or fringe that is a part of the regalia symbolizes sweet grass swaying in the wind as the dancer dances around the dance arena.  Sweet grass has been used to make coiled baskets called unity baskets.  The very small baskets were used to keep children’s naval cords in them.

            The four sacred plants are often utilized in sweat lodge ceremonies, pow wows, ghost suppers, naming ceremonies and other spiritual practices.  The four sacred plants complete the circle of life. Their smoke can provide cleansing for the mind, body, spirit and soul.  They can remove negative energy and refresh those who use them. It has been very important for the Anishanaabeg and other cultural groups to bestow gratitude for all the Great Mystery has provided to them.  Keeping the idea of gratitude in their minds and the proper use of all the sacred plants helps those who use these sacred plants to convey their personal meaning of thankfulness.

          In the days before the United States and Canada were settled by Europeans, there were no political boundaries.  Many of the tribes were nomadic hunters and gatherers.  Weather and the availability of food sources played a role in deciding where the Anishanaabeg would live.  The Indian people were industrious, prosperous and predominantly content.  Prosperity consisted of being able to celebrate the abundance of food, support from community members, resilient leadership, and strong spiritual ties with the Great Mystery.  Leadership in traditional Indian communities maintained solidarity amongst all community members. The Anishanaabeg practiced an undying gratitude for all bestowed upon them. In 1620, many European people settled in the Great Lakes area and the way of life of the Anishanaabeg changed drastically. 

 

 

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[i] Benton-Banai,E. (1981). The Mishomis Book: The Voice of the Ojibway. Minnesota:  Indian Country Press, Inc., 89-93.

[ii] Peacock, T. and Wisuri, M. (2002). Ojibwe Waasa Inaabidaa: We Look In All Directions. Minnesota: Afton Historical Society Press, 23.  

[iii] Benton-Banai, E. (1981). The Mishomis Book: The Voice of the Ojibway (Minnesota:  Indian Country Press, Inc., 1981), 75-79. 

[iv] Peacock, T., and Wisuri, M. (2002). Ojibwe Waasa Inaabidaa: We Look In All Directions. Minnesota: Afton Historical Society Press, 28.

[v] Ibid, 64-89.

[vi] Peacock, T.and Wisuri, M. (2002). Ojibwe Waasa Inaabidaa: We Look In All Directions. Minnesota: Afton Historical Society Press, 64-77.

[vii] Hilger,I. Chippewa Child Life and Its Cultural Background. Minnesota: Minnesota Historical Society Press,58.

[viii] Benton-Banai, E. (1981). The Mishomis Book: The Voice of he Ojibway. Minnesota:  Indian Country Press, Inc., 30-35.

[ix] Densmore, F. (1979). Chippewa Customs .Minnesota: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 52.