Jeffery Amherst

 

 

Jeffery Amherst’s heinous acts of genocide killed many Native American people. His favored form of genocide was biological warfare. Smallpox was used against a segment of the population unprepared to fight off its lethal properties. The men who fell under his command bought into his racism and helped him in his murderous rampage. Various tribes succumbed to the deadly grip of a very contagious disease while they thought the British were being generous with their gifts of blankets, handkerchiefs and little metal boxes. Amherst served as the commanding general of the British forces in Canada during the concluding battles of the French and Indian War (1754-1763). He acquired Canada for England after the takeover of Louisbourg in 1758 which assisted in helping England become the world’s chief colonizer as a result of the aforementioned war. Because of his victory in Canada, Amherst was promoted to Commander-in-Chief of the Forces; shortly after this appointment he was also promoted to General. He gained a lot of public support concerning his beliefs about the Indian people which he referred to as “savages,” undeserving of living. The Native American people lived in fear of Amherst and the British.     

    “The depiction of Indians as wild beasts was quite common among early American leaders, including George Washington and Thomas Jefferson. David E. Stannard writes: ‘As is so often the case, it was New England’s religious elite who made the point more graphically than anyone. Referring to some Indians who had given offense to the colonists, the Reverend Cotton Mather wrote: ‘Once you have but got the Track of those Ravenous howling Wolves, then pursue them vigorously; Turn not back till they are consumed…Beat them small as the Dust Before the Wind.’ Lest this be regarded as mere rhetoric, empty of literal intent, consider that another of New England’s most esteemed religious leaders, the Reverend Solomon Stoddard, as late as 1703 formally proposed to the Massachusetts Governor that the colonists be given the financial wherewithal to purchase and train large packs of dogs ‘to hunt Indians as they do bears’” (Stannard, 1992, pg. 241).

    Amherst went as far as giving Seneca land near Niagara to some of his officers for payment for their dedicated service. His actions matched Britain’s attitude toward land rights and treaty rights between the Six Nations and the colony of New York which were to be ignored (Utley and Washburn, 2001). The British spread their demand for land and all of its resources throughout Canada and the eastern portion of the United States during the 17^th and 18^th Centuries. Forests and and the land the Native Americans resided on was filled with healing medicines, wild game and places to garden and gather. The British took it upon themselves to cut down a lot of trees to build their homes and plant large gardens. Many of the benefits found in the forests were lost forever to the Native Americans. To make matters worse, many indigenous people faced deadly diseases as a result of the European invasion, intentional and unintentional. Many of the Odawa Indians in Michigan lost their lives as a result of Amherst’s intentional act of genocide.

 

The Odawa and the Smallpox Genocide

 

    In 1763, the British provided the Odawa Indians gifts consisting of three little insulated metal boxes. During the time the biological warfare occurred, the Odawa were on a peace mission returning British soldiers safely to the British settlement in Montreal. Under the direction of Sir Jeffery Amherst, the British instructed the Odawa people to not open the metal boxes until they returned from Montreal to their village near present day Harbor Springs, Michigan. The smallpox massacre was remembered in legends passed down for generations with the Odawa people. Pontiac’s rebellion, and the actions of few British officers were linked to the rationale behind the biological warfare inflicted against the unsuspecting Odawa people in 1763.              

    The Odawa Indians resided in various locations stemming from Canada, lower Michigan, the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and as far as Oklahoma. Ancient birch bark scrolls indicated the Odawa resided in the eastern areas of North America. They lived in the Great Lakes area for centuries before the arrival of the French in the 17^th century.  In the past, colonists in Quebec referred to all Algonquian tribal people from the Great Lakes as Odawa even if they were from another tribe such as the Ojibwe tribe. However, like other tribes they had their own language, customs, traditions, and own history which made them a distinct population and tribal nation. The Odawa, also known as the Ottawa, had a close connection to the Ojibwe/Chippewa and Potawatomi. All three tribes, referred to as the Anishnaabek (the original people), were known as the Three Fires Confederacy. They fought wars together, inter-married, and shared villages.

    The name Odawa was said to mean traders, buyers and sellers. They were considered prominent leaders concerning the fur trading business. Their abilities included their diplomatic skills with other tribal nations and white settlers. They were great fishermen, hunters and also relied upon their corn crops. They prepared maple syrup and gathered wild berries to provide for their families. The Odawa products, sought after by other tribal nations and white settlers, consisted of woven mats, black ash baskets and birch bark goods (Cappel, 2007).

    The area the Odawa lived in was referred to as L’Arbre Croche, which included a series of villages stretching from present day Cross Village to Harbor Springs, Michigan. “Arbre,” meant tree and “croche,” meant crooked or hook like. They deformed trees to serve as council trees and marker trees. Most of the trees were large maples. The deformed trees were formerly used to guide Native Americans on the overland path from Chicago to the Straits of Mackinac.

    To deform a tree, the center trunk was removed at a human’s shoulder height which caused the surrounding branches to grow out in an inverted umbrella shape. Deformed trees of this nature can also be found in ancient sacred sites in New England (Hanka, N.D.).

    The Odawa people were not completely exterminated or moved to another part of the country like many other tribes. Because many of the Odawa people were peace-loving and agrarian, they decided to assimilate with the white settlers. The common belief of the white settlers was if the inhabitants farmed the land they lived on, the land belonged to them. Otherwise, if the land was not being farmed, anyone could claim it. They worked as lumbermen, shop keepers, carpenters, and educators alongside the settlers and were part of the changing economic environment.

    After a skirmish at Fort Mackinac in 1763, some of the British soldiers who were in command of the fort were taken as prisoners by the Ojibwe people with the plan of killing them. Some Odawa warriors rescued the British soldiers and transported them back to Montreal where Amherst was stationed. The Odawa warriors, who returned the British soldiers, thought they were in good grace with the British military. As a token of appreciation, Amherst gave the Odawa warriors three little metal boxes. One larger box with another that fit into the first box and the second box contained an even smaller box. Three little metal boxes all together. Unknown to the Odawa, the smallest of the boxes contained smallpox pores. When they opened the last box, they ran their fingers in what they thought was a dust like substance trying to figure out what it was. Thousands of Odawa people lost their lives as a result of Amherst’s actions. Unrelated to what happened to the Odawa people at Abre Croche,  a warrior by the name of Pontiac proved to be a fierce adversary against the British and attacked and took over many British forts. 

Pontiac’s Rebellion: 

    From 1763 to 1766 Chief Pontiac of the Odawa tribe from the Detroit area became famous because of Pontiac’s rebellion. The rebellion represented an American Indian struggle against the British military efforts concerning the Great Lakes region. In July of 1763 Pontiac successfully defeated the British at the Battle of Bloody Run. He was unable to capture the fort at Detroit. Other Indian groups joined Pontiac’s rebellion against the British and these groups captured eight forts in what were present-day Illinois, Michigan, Indiana, Ohio and Pennsylvania. Crafty warriors with one thing in mind, to defeat the British by tricking the soldiers into allowing them to enter the forts, then they would capture and/or kill the residents (Cappel, 2007).

    When the Detroit Fort was under siege other tribal groups attacked and took over Ft. Presque Isle, Ft. Le Boeuf, Ft. Venango, Ft. Miami, Ft. St. Joseph, Ft. Ouilatenon, Fort Sandusky and Ft. Michilimackinac. Ft. Bedford and Ft. Ligonier. Ft. Pitt and Ft. Niagara were assaulted but not taken. Pontiac led a multitude of American Indians from several tribes in the resistance effort to drive the British from American/Indian held lands. The attacks on British forts may have led to much of the animosity of the British towards the Indian people.  Sir Jeffery Amherst heard about the Indian attacks on the British forts (Cappel, 2007). Pontiac’s Rebellion came to an abrupt halt when Colonel Henry Bouquet led a large army unit from Fort Pitt to Ohio and forced the Indian warriors to make peace (Douglas, 1996). 

Additional Acts of Biological Warfare Against the Native American People             

    Amherst plotted to exterminate many Indian people. “With the surrender of New France to Great Britain, command of the English North American military forces fell to Lord Jeffrey Amherst. An arrogant aristocrat who despised all Indians, Amherst withheld gunpowder and lead from France’s former native allies, stating that England’s enemies ought to be punished, not rewarded. When informed the tribes depended on their muskets for taking game and would starve without ammunition, he remained unswayed, callously informing his aides that they should seed the complaining bands with smallpox so as to lend starvation a speedy hand” (Robertson, 2001, pg. 119).

    He gave orders to supply smallpox infected blankets to American Indians at Ft. Pitt. He expressed his readiness to use any possible method to wipe out the Indian race completely. A letter from Colonel Henry Bouquet to General Amherst dated July 13, 1763 suggested the distribution of smallpox infested blankets to the Indians. In another letter dated July 16, 1763, from Amherst to Bouquet, Amherst gave approval of supplying contaminated blankets and every other method to exterminate the Indian people (Cappel, 2007).

    “In the spring of 1763, during the Indian uprising led by Ottawa Chief Pontiac, a party of Delewares ringed British owned Fort Pitt (now Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania), calling for its surrender. Captain Simeon Ecuyer, a Swiss mercenary and the fort’s senior officer, saved the garrison by giving the Delawares a gift – two blankets and a handkerchief. The Indians readily accepted the offering, but still demanded the Ecuyer vacate the stockade. They had no inkling that the blankets and kerchief were more deadly than a platoon of English sharpshooters. Ecuyer had ordered the presents deliberately infected with smallpox spores at the post hospital. By mid-July, the Delewares were dying as though they had been raked by a grape cannonade. Fort Pitt remained firmly in English hands” (Robertson, 2001, pg. 119). 

Later Years for Amherst: 

    Amherst’s successes in North America awarded him with honors before and after his death. Towns and a college were named after him. His conduct as a commander, which was considered solid, aided in the takeover of Louisbourg in 1759. Labeled as an organizer of victory, he left nothing to chance concerning the fields of supply and transport. His thoroughness was what the war in North America required.  He was appointed governor of Virginia in September of 1759. He did not function actively in that role. The appointment of commander-in-chief in America led him to holding the office of colonel-in-chief of the Royal Americans. In 1775 at the age of 58, the British king encouraged Amherst to take command in America. The colonists threatened war. He refused. The king asked him again in 1778 and again he refused. In 1780 he had the task of restoring order in London after the Gordon riots. Dismissed of that assignment when Lord North’s ministry went out of office in 1782. At the age of 76, he was recalled and appointed commander-in-chief with a seat in the cabinet because war with France served as a threat. He retired after two years and promoted to field marshal as of July 30, 1796. Amherst died August 3, 1797 and was buried at the parish church of Sevenoaks (Stacey, 1979).

    Amherst’s hatred of the Native Americans followed suit with many of the leaders of the time. North America during the mid to late 1700s faced turmoil due to the animosity between France and Britain as a result of territorial issues in North America. The French and Indian War also known as the Seven Year War occurred due to the aforementioned animosities. The British outnumbered the French, but many Native Americans joined forces with the French against the British. Pontiac’s rebellion also added fuel to the hatred of the indigenous people by the British. As a result of extreme hatred of the Native Americans, many lost their lives by biological warfare and other means at the hands of Amherst and other British leaders.